Steep Turns

Introduction

A steep turn is a fundamental training maneuver designed to develop a pilot’s flight proficiency. The maneuver involves turning the aircraft at a 45°to 50° bank angle while maintaining airspeed and altitude.

This lesson introduces the procedural steps, control techniques, the effects of overbanking, load factors, and common errors for steep turns. Practicing this maneuver develops the ability to maintain altitude during a turn through the combined use of the pitch, bank, yaw, and power controls. It also increases the pilot’s understanding of how an aircraft handles at higher load factors and how it can be affected by overbanking tendencies.

Objectives

After this lesson, the learner will be able to:

Describe the aerodynamic principles of steep turns.
Roll into a coordinated, steep turn at the appropriate bank angle bank.
Maintain the bank angle and altitude using the relative position of the horizon to the nose and the wings.
Roll out of a steep turn on a specific heading and resume straight-and-level flight.

Risk Management

Failure to divide attention between airplane control and orientation
Collision hazards, to include aircraft and terrain
Low altitude maneuvering including stall, spin, or CFIT
Distractions, improper task management, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation
Failure to maintain coordinated flight

Scenario

You are flying down the Hudson River for sightseeing in New York City. The river is narrow, and the airspace is confining. When you decide to turn around, you see high-rise buildings along both shores and traffic crossing above and below you.

Describe and demonstrate how to reverse course using a steep turn.

Resources

Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3):
- Chapter 10, Performance Maneuvers

Schedule

Lesson Briefing (0:20)
Demonstrations and Practice (0:20)
Lesson Debriefing (0:10)

Equipment

Whiteboard, markers, and erasers
Airplane models
Airplane checklists
Headsets and flight gear

Lesson Debriefing

This lesson concludes with a collaborative assessment and review of the main points and risk management items.

Additionally, the instructor ensures:

All of the learner’s questions are resolved.
The learner is made aware of his or her performance and progress.

Completion Standards

This lesson is complete when the lesson objectives are met and the learner’s knowledge, risk management, and skills are determined to be adequate for the stage of training. Ultimately, the learner must meet or exceed the Airman Certification Standards.

Lesson Content

What is a Steep Turn?

Steep turns consist of single to multiple 360° turns, in either or both directions, using a bank angle between 45° and 60°.

When performing steep turns, pilots are exposed to:

Higher load factors.
The airplane’s inherent overbanking tendency.
The need for additional power to maintain airspeed.
The need for substantial pitch control pressures to maintain the vertical component of lift.

Overbanking Tendency

In a steeply-banked turn, airplanes exhibit a tendency to continue rolling in the direction of the bank unless deliberate and opposite aileron pressure is held against the bank. The tendency to continue rolling is called overbanking.

Overbanking occurs as a result of differences in lift between the wings. The wing on the outside of the turn travels a longer path than the inside wing, yet both complete their respective paths in the same unit of time. Therefore, the outside wing travels at a faster airspeed than the inside wing, and, as a result, it develops more lift.

Note: Other factors such as torque and inertia may contribute to the overbanking tendency.

Adverse Yaw

Adverse yaw is a condition in which the nose of an airplane yaws toward the outside of the turn. It is caused by differential drag between the left and right wings or ailerons.

Correcting for Adverse Yaw

To correct for adverse yaw, rudder pressure should be applied in the direction of the turn as necessary to maintain coordination. Rudder movement should be made simultaneously with the ailerons. The amount of rudder pressure needed varies by the airspeed, degree of aileron deflection, and bank angle.

At slower airspeeds, aerodynamic pressure on control surfaces is low, and larger control inputs are required to maneuver the aircraft. Steeper turns also require more rudder pressure due to the greater velocity differences between the left and right wings.

Note: Differential and Frise-type ailerons are designed to reduce adverse yaw.

Correcting for Left-Turning Tendencies

Note: Torque and P-Factor create left-turning tendencies in airplanes with an engine mounted on the front (a “puller”, not a “pusher”) and a propeller rotating in a clockwise direction (as seen from the rear).

The effects of torque and P-factor vary considerably throughout each phase of flight. Pilots must learn to compensate for these forces through the use of aileron and rudder inputs when appropriate.

During Left and Right Turns

Greater rudder pressure is required when entering right turns than left.
The airplane tends to skid in left turns (less, or even a slight opposite rudder pressure is required).
The airplane tends to slip in right turns (slight right rudder pressure may be required throughout the turn).

Turning Flight

When the wings are banked, lift is separated into vertical and horizontal components. The horizontal component of lift causes the airplane to turn. Centrifugal force tries to pull the airplane away from the direction of the turn, counteracting the horizontal component of lift.

Lift and Drag in a Turn

Lift: The greater the bank, the greater the rate of turn will be because more lift goes into the horizontal component. Total lift remains constant due to a decrease in the vertical component.

Drag: To maintain altitude in a turn, back pressure on the pitch control must be increased. Drag increases and additional power is needed to maintain airspeed.

Rate of Turn

The rate of turn is the number of degrees of heading change that an aircraft makes per second.

At a given airspeed, the turn rate increases if the bank angle increases. Likewise, if airspeed is held constant, the rate of turn increases if the bank angle is increased.

Rate of Turn = (1,091 × tanØ) ÷ KTAS

Radius of Turn

At a given bank angle, a higher airspeed makes the radius of turn larger because the airplane turns slower. The higher airspeed causes the aircraft to travel through a longer arc. To compensate for the increase in airspeed, the bank angle would need to be increased.

Radius of Turn = KTAS² ÷ (11.26 × tanØ)

Load Factor

References: 14 CFR 23.2210, 14 CFR 23.2230

Load factor is the ratio of the total load supported by the airplane’s wing to the total weight of the airplane.

Load Factor = Lift ÷ Weight

Effect of Turns on Load Factor

As an airplane is banked, more lift is required to maintain level flight due to the inclination of the lift vector. Total lift must increase to maintain the same vertical component of lift equal to the weight. Therefore, load factor increases.

The following formula computes the load factor in a particular bank angle, represented by the Greek letter theta (Ø).

Load Factor = 1 ÷ cosØ

Examples:

In a 30° bank, the load factor is +1.15 Gs.
In a 45° bank, the load factor is +1.41 Gs.
In a 60° bank, the load factor is +2 Gs.

Maneuvering Speed

References: AC 23-19, SAIB CE-11-17

The design maneuvering speed (VA) is a structural design airspeed used in determining the strength requirements for the airplane and its control surfaces. When at or below VA, the pilot can move a single flight control, one time, to its full deflection, in smooth air, without risk of damage to the airplane.

Pilots should not interpret the maneuvering speed as:

A speed that permits multiple full control inputs at the same time. This creates bending and twisting forces on the airframe (e.g., “Rolling Gs”).
A gust penetration speed, although some manufacturers use VA for that purpose. The AFM/POH may provide a separate turbulence penetration speed (VB).

Calculating Maneuvering Speed

If not specified in the AFM/POH, the maneuvering speed for a lower operating weight can be approximated with the following formula.

VA1 = VA2 × √(Current Weight ÷ Maximum Gross Weight)

VA1 is the calculated maneuvering speed for the current weight.
VA2 is the AFM/POH maneuvering speed at the maximum gross weight.

It can be approximated for airplanes without a published VA with the following formula.

VA = VS1 × √(Positive Limit Load Factor)

Example: The square root of 3.8 Gs (normal category load limit) is roughly 1.95. A slightly lower number (1.7) should be used as a safety margin.

The Need for Additional Power in a Steep Turn

As an airplane is banked, back pressure on the pitch control is applied to maintain level flight. The increase in lift results in more drag and a slower airspeed.

The bank angle also increases the load factor and stalling speed. This is undesirable. The stall speed is increasing, and the airspeed is decreasing. Power must be increased to overcome drag and maintain a margin above the stall speed.

Load Factor	Drag	Stall Speed	Power Required
Increases	Increases	Increases	Increases

Load factor, drag, and stall speed increase in a level turn, requiring additional power.

How to Perform a Steep Turn

Pre-Maneuver Checks

Clear the area
Heading established and noted:
- Select a suitable reference point on the horizon
- Align the heading bug, if equipped, to the reference point
Altitude established:
- No lower than 1,500′ AGL [ASEL]
- No lower than 3,000′ AGL [AMEL]
Position near a suitable emergency landing area
Set power and aircraft configuration:
- Establish the recommended airspeed, or if not stated, an airspeed at or below VA or VO
- Normal cruise configuration
- Note the pitch and power settings for use during the rollout

Use of Trim

Steep turns can be performed with or without trim. Using trim reduces the need for large control inputs and allows the pilot to keep a light feel on the controls during the turn.

If using trim, adjust it as the bank angle goes beyond 30°. During the rollout, apply forward pressure on the pitch control to prevent “ballooning” (gaining altitude) until the trim is reset.

Entry

Smoothly and firmly apply aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the desired turn.
As the bank angle increases, apply back pressure on the pitch control to maintain level flight. Apply trim if desired.
Smoothly add power to maintain airspeed.
When the bank angle has reached 45° or 50°, the pitch reference point on the windshield should be just a slight bit higher than for a 30° bank turn.

Execution

Use the aileron control to keep the bank angle from increasing (correction for overbanking tendency).
For airspeed deviations, make power adjustments.
For altitude deviations, make slight pitch and bank angle adjustments:
- If altitude is decreasing, momentarily reduce the bank angle a few degrees.
- If altitude is increasing, momentarily increase the bank angle a few degrees.

Rollout

Lead the rollout heading by one-half the number of degrees of the angle of bank (e.g., 50° bank ÷ 2 = 25° lead).
Simultaneously apply forward pressure to level the pitch attitude and reduce the power back to the entry setting.
Immediately roll into a turn in the opposite direction, if appropriate.

Exit

Return to cruise speed, trimming as necessary.
Complete the cruise checklist.

Common Errors for Steep Turns

Failure to scan for traffic before and during the maneuver
Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout
Gaining altitude in right turns and losing altitude in left turns (when flown from the left seat)
Failure to maintain a constant bank angle
Poor flight control coordination
Ineffective use of trim or power
Loss of orientation
Overcontrolling (low and fast to high and slow and vice-versa)
Performing by reference to the flight instruments rather than visual references
Attempting to start the rollout prematurely
Not completing the turn on the designated heading or reference

Airman Certification Standards for Steep Turns

References: FAA-S-8081-29, FAA-S-ACS-6, FAA-S-ACS-7

Notes:

For sport and private pilots, the number of 360° turns is specified by the evaluator. Commercial pilot certification requires two 360° turns in opposite directions.
Steep turns are not considered as “self-clearing.” A failure to clear the area is subject to disapproval.

Airspeed	Altitude	Bank	Rollout
±10 KIAS	±100′	45° ±5° (SPT, PVT) 50° ±5° (COM)	±10°

Summary of Skill Standards for Airman Certification

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Sunday, January 7, 2024