Flight Review

Introduction

The purpose of the flight review is to provide for a regular evaluation of pilot skills and aeronautical knowledge. It is not a practical test, but rather a training event in which proficiency is evaluated. In effect, the flight review is the aeronautical equivalent of a regular medical checkup.

Note: Referring to a flight review as a “BFR” is discouraged due to the confusion between biennial (occurring every two years) and biannual (occurring twice a year).

Objectives

By the end of the flight review, the pilot will:

Update and expand his or her skills as a pilot.
Be up-to-date on regulations, industry changes, and safety of flight subjects.
Be proficient in any subject areas or piloting skills that have deteriorated since the last flight review.

Instructor Preparation

A review guide for instructors (Conduct of a Flight Review) is available in the Instructor Resources section of My CFI Book.

Suggested Outline

Interview

Talk with the pilot to obtain his or her background information and training goals.

Agreement

Agree on how the flight review will be conducted, including the completion standards and estimated training time.

Preflight Preparation

Ask the pilot to prepare for a flight to a nearby airport (30–50 NMs away) using his or her typical planning routine.

Ground Review

Discuss the items in the “Lesson Briefing” section.
Use the FAR/AIM Quick Reference as a guide to discuss regulations as they relate to the planned cross-country flight.
Use the Ramp Inspection Checklist to review the aircraft’s airworthiness status and applicable regulations.

Flight Activities

Begin flying the cross-country scenario but simulate a need for a diversion.
Let the pilot make decisions.
Use the return leg to complete the airwork.

Postflight Discussion

Guide the pilot through a collaborative critique (replay, reconstruct, reflect, redirect).
Help the pilot develop a plan to maintain and improve his or her aeronautical knowledge and skills.

Lesson Briefing

Appendices and Supplements

Risk Management

Failure to distinguish proficiency and currency
Operating an aircraft without a prerequisite or misunderstanding a limitation
Failure to understand flight rules critical to flight safety
Collision avoidance, visual scanning, obstacle and wire strike avoidance

Resources

Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)
AC 61-28: FAA English Language Standard for an FAA Certificate Issued Under 14 CFR Parts 61, 63, 65, and 107
AC 61-65: Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors
AC 61-91: WINGS–Pilot Proficiency Program
AC 61-98: Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check
AC 61-136: FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for Training and Experience
Conducting an Effective Flight Review (FAA publication)

Schedule

Lesson Debriefing, Part 1 (0:50)
Break (0:10)
Lesson Debriefing, Part 2 (0:50)
Flight Training and Evaluation (2:00)
Lesson Debriefing (0:30)

Equipment

Whiteboard, markers, and erasers
Airman Certification Standards appropriate to the pilot’s certificate level
FAR/AIM
Airman documents and records for review
Airplane manuals and maintenance records
Airplane checklists
Headsets and flight gear

Lesson Debriefing

This lesson concludes with a collaborative assessment and review of the main points and risk management items.

Additionally, the instructor ensures:

All of the learner’s questions are resolved.
The learner is made aware of his or her performance.

Completion Standards

The flight review is complete when the pilot demonstrates the knowledge, risk management, and skills specified in the applicable Airman Certification Standards (ACS) for the Tasks selected.

Reasons for an unsatisfactory performance include:

Any action or lack of action by the pilot which requires corrective intervention by the instructor to maintain safe flight
Failure to use proper and effective visual scanning techniques to clear the area before and while performing maneuvers
Consistently exceeding tolerances stated in the ACS skill elements of the Task
Failure to take prompt corrective action when tolerances are exceeded
Failure to exercise risk management

Lesson Content

Recent Flight Experience Requirements

References: 14 CFR 61.56, 14 CFR 61.57, Kortokrax (2006) Legal Interpretation

Flight Review

Unless they meet one of the exemptions outlined in 14 CFR 61.56, pilots may not act as PIC unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months, they have satisfactorily accomplished a flight review in an aircraft for which they are rated.

Aircraft and Airport Security

If suspicious activity is witnessed, pilots should call the 24-hour security hotline. The TSA staffs the hotline as part of the AOPA’s Airport Watch program. For criminal activity that requires immediate action, 9-1-1 should be called first.

Security Hotline: 1-866-GA-SECURE (1-866-427-3287)

Suspicious behaviors include:

Excessive interest in restricted airspace or ground structures.
Unusual interest regarding aircraft capabilities.
Aeronautical knowledge that is inconsistent with the airman’s credentials.
Sudden termination of the client or customer’s instruction.
Damage to aircraft locks.
Unusual aircraft modifications, such as:
- The use of tape or paint to change the appearance of a tail number.
- Strengthening of the landing gear.
- Removal of seating or interior equipment.
Dangerous or hazardous cargo loaded into an aircraft.

Runway Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-3

Chevrons are yellow markings aligned with the runway that show pavement areas that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.

Demarcation bars delineate displaced runway thresholds from unusable pavement such as blast pads, stopways, or taxiways that precede the threshold. A demarcation bar is yellow since it is not located on the runway.

Threshold bars delineate the beginning of runways when a threshold has been relocated or displaced.

Threshold markings identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing. Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. These markings have eight stripes of uniform dimensions, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width. Visual runways, those without an instrument approach, do not have threshold markings.

60′ Wide	75′ Wide	100′ Wide	150′ Wide	200′ Wide
4 Stripes	6 Stripes	8 Stripes	12 Stripes	16 Stripes

Number of threshold stripes when related to the runway width.

Designation markings are numbers and letters that identify a runway. The number is determined from the approach direction. It is based on the magnetic heading of the runway centerline. The letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, as applicable.

Centerline markings identify the center of the runway and provide alignment guidance to aircraft during takeoff and landing. The stripes are 120′ in length with 80′ gaps.

Side stripe markings consist of continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway. These markings provide visual contrast between runway pavement and the ground.

Shoulder markings consist of continuous yellow stripes used when needed to identify pavement next to the runway that is not intended for use by aircraft.

Touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for aircraft on a precision instrument approach. The markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline. They are spaced in 500′ increments, measured from the beginning of the runway.

Aiming point markings serve as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000′ from the landing threshold. The markings are 100′ to 150′ in length, depending on the runway length.

Taxiway Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-4

Enhanced taxiway centerline markings are used at larger airports to warn pilots that they are approaching a runway holding position marking. These markings consist of two parallel, yellow-dashed lines located on either side of the normal taxiway centerline beginning approximately 150′ before a runway holding position marking.

Normal taxiway centerline markings are a single continuous yellow line. Ideally, the aircraft should be kept centered over this line during taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with other aircraft or objects.

Surface-painted location signs are located on the right side of the centerline to assist the pilot in confirming the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings have a black background with a yellow inscription.

Geographic position markings are located at points along low-visibility taxi routes to identify a taxiing aircraft’s location during low-visibility operations. These markings are comprised of an outer white or black ring with a pink circle in the middle. Either a number or a number and letter is positioned in the center of the pink circle.

Surface-painted taxiway direction signs are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections or when necessary to supplement such signs. These markings have a yellow background with a black inscription.

Edge markings help define the taxiway’s edge, primarily when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. These markings typically consist of continuous double yellow lines. Dashed lines are used when the adjoining pavement is intended to be used by aircraft (e.g., ramps and run-up areas).

Shoulder markings are yellow stripes that are used where conditions exist, such as taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft. A taxiway shoulder is not intended for use by aircraft.

Holding Position Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-5

Runway holding position markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. These markings consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, extending across the taxiway or runway width. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.

Runway holding position markings may be encountered:

On taxiways where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway.
On runways that ATC uses for land and hold short operations (LAHSO) or taxiing operations.
On taxiways located in runway approach areas are used at some airports where a taxiway is located in an approach or departure area. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of a runway approach or departure area (e.g., “22-APCH” sign).

Example Instructions: "Hold short of Runway 32 approach area."

Holding position markings for instrument landing system (ILS) critical areas consist of two solid yellow lines (horizontal) connected by pairs of solid lines (vertical) extending across the width of the taxiway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of an ILS critical area.

Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single, yellow dashed line extending across the taxiway’s width.

Types of Airport Signs

Reference: AIM 2-3-7

Mandatory instruction signs have a red background with a white inscription. They are used to denote an entrance to a runway or critical area, and areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering.

Typical mandatory signs and applications are:

Runway holding position signs
Runway approach area holding position signs
ILS critical area holding position signs
No entry signs

Location signs typically have a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border. They are used to identify where the aircraft is located.

Typical location sign applications are:

Taxiway location signs
Runway location signs
Runway boundary signs (yellow background with a black graphic depicting the runway holding position marking)
ILS critical area boundary signs (yellow background with a black graphic depicting the ILS holding position marking)

Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.

Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction to a destination. Destinations commonly shown are runways, terminals, cargo areas, and FBOs.

Information signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. These signs provide the pilot with information such as radio frequencies and noise abatement procedures.

Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The number on the signs indicates the distance, in thousands of feet, of landing runway remaining.

Visual Glideslope Indicators

Reference: 14 CFR 91.129, AIM 2-1-2

Visual glideslope indicators are located on the left side of some runways to provide the pilot with glidepath information that can be used for day or night approaches.

Note: In Class B, C, and D airspace, pilots who are approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator must maintain an altitude at or above the glidepath until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Visual Approach Slope Indicator

The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of lights arranged to provide a visual descent path to a runway. These lights are visible from about 3–5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night.

The VASI’s visual descent path provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or minus 10° of the extended runway centerline and out to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent using the VASI should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the extended runway centerline.

Two-bar VASI installations are most common. They provide one visual glidepath, which is typically set at 3°. At some locations, the angle may be as high as 4.5° to give proper obstacle clearance.

Three-bar VASI installations provide two visual glidepaths. The lower glidepath is provided by the near and middle bars and is typically set at 3°, while the upper glidepath, provided by the middle and far bars, is normally 1/4° higher. This higher glidepath is intended for use only by high-cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height.

An easy way to remember VASI indications:

“Red over white, you’re alright.”
“White over white, you’ll fly all night.”
“Red over red, you’re dead.”

Precision Approach Path Indicator

The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but is installed in a single row of either two or four light units. These lights are visible from about 5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night.

Safe obstruction clearance is typically provided within plus or minus 10° of the extended runway centerline and to 3.4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent, using the PAPI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the runway.

The visual glidepath is typically set at 3°, although the angle may be as high as 4.5° at some locations to give proper obstacle clearance.

Hot Spots

References: Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide, Chart Supplements

A hot spot is a location on an airport movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, where pilots’ and drivers’ heightened attention is necessary. They are typically located at confusing taxiway and runway intersections.

Hot spots are depicted on airport diagrams as an open circle or ellipse for ground movement hot spots and a cylinder (rectangle) for wrong surface hot spots. They are designated by “HS” and a number (e.g., HS 1 or HS 2).

Hot spots are also described in Chart Supplements publications under the “Hots Spots” heading. They remain charted until the increased risk has been reduced or eliminated.

Runway Incursions

Reference: AC 91-73

The FAA formally defines a runway incursion as “any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.”

A surface incident is similar to a runway incursion but occurs on a designated movement area (not a runway) and affects or could affect the safety of flight.

Types of Runway Incursions

Pilot Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without a clearance or taking off or landing without a clearance.

Operational Incidents: Clearing an aircraft onto a runway while another aircraft is landing on the same runway.

Vehicle Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without ATC clearance.

Runway Incursion Severity

D	C	B	A	Accident
Incident that meets the definition of runway incursion but with no immediate safety consequences.	An incident characterized by ample time and/or distance to avoid a collision.	An incident in which separation decreases, and there is a significant potential for collision, which may result in a time-critical evasive response to avoid a collision.	A serious incident in which a collision was narrowly avoided.	An incursion that resulted in a collision.

Runway Incursion Statistics

In the U.S., an average of three runway incursions occur daily. According to FAA data, approximately 65% of all runway incursions are caused by pilots, of which GA pilots cause 75%.

Investigations of runway incursions have identified four major contributing factors:

Failure to comply with ATC instructions
Lack of airport familiarity
Nonconformance with standard operating procedures
Distractions during taxi operations

Wrong Runway Departures

Wrong runway departures are a subset of runway incursions. No one intends to take off on the wrong runway, but it still happens.

Major contributing factors to wrong runway departures:

Short taxi distance (less time to spot errors)
Single runway airports
A single taxiway leading to multiple runway thresholds
The close proximity of multiple runway thresholds

Best practices for preventing wrong runway departures:

Trace the taxi route to the departure runway on the airport diagram.
If uncertain about the taxi route, request progressive taxi instructions.
Verify each airport marking and sign along the taxi route.
Avoid distractions while the aircraft is moving (“heads up, eyes out”).
Set the heading bug before taxiing. Before adding power, ensure that the aircraft heading is aligned with the heading bug and runway heading.

Wrong Direction Departures from an Intersection

A wrong direction departure occurs when a pilot is cleared for an intersection takeoff and then departs in the wrong direction.

Major contributing factors to wrong direction departures:

Feeling rushed into the situation
Misinterpreting airport markings and signs
Not being fully prepared and ready when reaching the hold short line

Additional best practices for preventing wrong direction departures:

At a towered airport, do not confuse an instruction to turn after departure with a turn onto the runway.
Visualize the runway holding position sign as the runway (e.g., the runway number on the left side of the sign is to the pilot’s left).

Best Practices for Avoiding Surface Deviations

The best way to avoid a runway incursion is to make sure you understand (1) where you are at, (2) what you have been cleared to do, and (3) where you are going.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): GA pilots should develop and adhere to SOPs based on regulations and industry best practices. A sterile cockpit and proper use of aircraft lights should be defined in every pilot’s set procedures.

Situational Awareness (SA): To establish SA, pilots should review the expected taxi route and location of hot spots. To maintain SA, pilots should avoid heads-down time when taxiing.

Proficiency: Recurrent training and continuing education lead to proficiency. A flight to a towered airport with an experienced instructor is a good way to learn and practice.

Point and Acknowledge: Pointing at and calling out location signs and markings can help a pilot maintain focus and attention.

The Risk Management Process

1. Identify Hazards (Perceive): Identify conditions, events, objects, or circumstances that could lead to or contribute to an accident.

2. Assess the Risk (Process): Determine the probability and severity of an accident that could result from the hazards.

3. Mitigate the Risk (Perform): Investigate strategies and tools that reduce, mitigate, or eliminate the risk.

Identifying Hazards (Perceive)

Hazards can be identified using the following checklists:

PAVE: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures.
I’M SAFE: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, and Emotion.

Assessing Risk (Process)

Pilots can differentiate, in advance, between low-risk and high-risk flights by using a risk assessment matrix or a more sophisticated flight risk assessment tool (FRAT).

Risk Assessment Matrix

A risk assessment matrix assesses two items: the likelihood (probability) of an event occurring and the severity (consequence) of that event.

Likelihood/Severity	Catastrophic	Critical	Marginal	Negligible
Probable	High	High	Serious	Medium
Occasional	High	Serious	Medium	Low
Remote	Serious	Medium	Medium	Low
Improbable	Medium	Medium	Medium	Low

Likelihood of an Event

Likelihood taking a situation and determining the probability of its occurrence.

Probable: An event will occur several times.
Occasional: An event will probably occur sometime.
Remote: An event is unlikely to occur, but is possible.
Improbable: An event is highly unlikely to occur.

Example: When flying in marginal visual flight rules (MVFR) conditions, the likelihood of encountering potential IMC might be classified as “occasional.”

Severity of an Event

The severity or consequence of a pilot’s actions can relate to injury or damage.

Catastrophic: Results in fatalities/total loss (damage beyond repair).
Critical: Severe injury/major damage.
Marginal: Minor injury/minor damage.
Negligible: Less than minor injury/less than minor damage.

Example: The hazard of a nick in a propeller poses a risk. If the damaged prop is exposed to the constant vibration of normal engine operation, there is a high risk that it could fracture. The severity of the damage caused to the engine, airframe, and occupants can be classified as “catastrophic.”

Flight Risk Assessment Tools

A flight risk assessment tool (FRAT) enables pilots to identify hazards and can visually depict risk.

Benefits of using a FRAT:

It shows how an accumulation of hazards increases the total flight risk.
It requires pilots to think about hazards. It is a teaching and learning tool.

Mitigating Risk (Perform)

Risk can be mitigated by:

Maintaining situational awareness.
Establishing and adhering to personal minimums.
Examining the common causes of aircraft accidents.
Understanding human factors and biases in aviation.
Applying the principles of single-pilot resource management.
Using a structured framework for decision-making, including the 5P, 3P, and DECIDE models.

The "3D Rule" of Risk Mitigation
Delay, Divert, or Drive.

Example: A pilot flying in MVFR conditions has several ways to reduce risk: delay the flight until the weather improves, fly with a friend who is instrument rated (“divert” the plan), or drive.

Single-Pilot Resource Management

Single-pilot resource management (SRM) is the art and science of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (before and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.

SRM includes the concepts of:

Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness
Situational awareness
Flight deck management

SRM training can help a pilot accurately assess and manage risk and make timely decisions.

Use of Resources

Pilots must be aware of the resources found both inside and outside the flight deck to make informed decisions.

Internal resources are found in the airplane. They include the avionics, autopilot, checklists, the AFM/POH, and passengers.

External resources available during flight include ATC and flight service stations (FSS). ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. An FSS can provide updates on weather and airport conditions.

Situational Awareness

Situational awareness is the accurate perception of operational and environmental factors that affect the flight. It is a logical analysis based on the four fundamental risk elements (pilot, aircraft, environment, and external pressures).

Situational Awareness = Knowing what is going on and what is coming next.

When situationally aware, a pilot has an overview of the total operation and can proactively manage the flight. A pilot with poor situational awareness operates in a reactive manner, responding to unexpected events as they unfold.

Best Practices for Maintaining Situational Awareness

Develop strong task management skills.
Plan ahead (e.g., review the airport diagram before taxiing and landing).
Regularly pause to make a quick mental assessment of the flight environment.
Consciously raise awareness in critical phases of flight and during ground operations.
Use advanced avionics properly (avoid complacency and excessive “heads-down” time).

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness

Unfamiliar or inoperative equipment can increase pilot workload.
Fatigue and stress can reduce short-term performance and memory.
Unexpected events can cause fixation on a single item rather than the overall situation.
Complacency, interruptions, and distractions can divert attention away from critical tasks.

Aeronautical Decision-Making

Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

ADM = What pilots intend to do based on the information they have.

The Decision-Making Process

1. Define the Problem: A problem is perceived by the senses and recognized through insight and experience. An objective analysis of all available information is used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.

2. Choose a Course of Action: The pilot determines the actions that may be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each action should be considered, and the risks assessed before the pilot decides on a response.

3. Implement the Decision and Evaluate the Outcome: After a decision is reached and a course of action is implemented, the pilot continues to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it produces the desired result.

Operational Pitfalls

Peer Pressure: Poor decision-making may be based on an emotional response to peers, rather than evaluating a situation objectively.

Mindset: A pilot displays a mindset through an inability to recognize and cope with changes in a given situation.

Plan Continuation Bias (“Get-There-Itis”): This disposition impairs pilot judgment through a fixation on the original goal or destination, combined with a disregard for an alternative course of action.

Duck-Under Syndrome: A pilot may be tempted to make it into an airport by descending below minimums during an approach.

Scud Running: This occurs when a pilot tries to maintain visual contact with the terrain at low altitudes while instrument conditions exist.

Continuing Visual Flight into Instrument Conditions: Spatial disorientation or collision with ground/obstacles may occur when a pilot continues VFR into instrument conditions.

Getting Behind the Aircraft: This pitfall can be caused by allowing events to control pilot actions. A constant state of surprise at what happens next may be exhibited when the pilot is getting behind the aircraft.

Loss of Positional or Situational Awareness: When a pilot gets behind the aircraft, a loss of positional or situational awareness may result.

Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves: Ignoring minimum fuel reserve requirements is generally the result of overconfidence, lack of flight planning, or disregarding applicable regulations.

Descent Below the Minimum En Route Altitude: The duck-under syndrome, as mentioned above, can also occur during the en route portion of an IFR flight.

Flying Outside the Envelope: The assumed high-performance capability of a particular aircraft may cause a mistaken belief that it can meet the demands imposed by a pilot’s overestimated flying skills.

Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists: A pilot may rely on short- and long-term memory, regular flying skills, and familiar routes instead of established procedures and published checklists.

The Poor Judgment Chain

Most accidents have multiple causal factors, which can be thought of as links in a chain. The poor judgment chain (PJC) describes the series of mistakes that lead to accidents and incidents related to human factors.

Basic principles of the PJC:

One bad decision often leads to another.
As the string of bad decisions grows, the number of safe alternatives available to the pilot diminishes.
Breaking one link in the chain is all that is usually necessary to change the outcome.

Automation Management

Effective automation management allows the pilot to assess, detect, and correct errors; thus, it helps prevent accidents.

Levels of Automation

While there is no industry consensus, the levels of automation can be defined as:

No Automation: Flight director OFF; Autopilot OFF.
Basic Guidance: Flight director ON; Autopilot OFF.
Simple Automation: Autopilot in roll or heading mode; Altitude hold or climb/descent mode.
Advanced Automation: Autopilot guided by a GPS or FMS; Altitude hold.

No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight situations.

Using the Appropriate Level of Automation

Workload typically decreases at higher levels of automation. However, there are times when manually flying can be more beneficial.

Examples:

A pilot’s lack of familiarity with an automated system would make it easier to disconnect the system and manually fly an approach.
Pilots should consider stepping down a level in automation when things go wrong or get complicated.

Active Automation Management

Automation should be managed actively rather than passively (“set and forget”). Active automation management enhances situational awareness and helps to identify automation failures.

To actively manage the automation, pilots must:

Cross-reference the data provided by various systems.
Monitor the flight progress (e.g., waypoints and fuel burn).
Know how the technology normally performs and its failure modes.
Be ready to take action if the system does not perform as expected.

Autopilot Management

Managing the autopilot means knowing which modes are engaged and which are armed to engage.

Autopilot management errors can be reduced by:

Verifying each button press is recognized by the system.
Making callouts after every mode change and when arming the system.

Caution: Anytime the autopilot is disconnected, the pilot should have a firm grip on the controls to counter any unexpected trim forces.

Automation Management Errors

Humans are not well suited for being automated system monitors. Extended periods of performing trivial tasks often lead to daydreaming or complacency.

Monitoring errors can be reduced by:

Guarding against fixation.
Making consistent verifications and callouts.
Scanning the instruments in the same way as when hand flying.

Task Management

Effective task management ensures that essential operations are accomplished without overloading the pilot.

Like any other skill, pilots must learn to:

Plan, prioritize, and sequence tasks.
Perform several tasks at once (multitask).
Deal with distractions and interruptions.
Overcome problems with fixation and inattention.

Best Practices for Task Management

Use automation judiciously.
Prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating.
Anticipate the workload associated with the next phase of flight.
Be wary of inoperative equipment. An inoperative autopilot or navigation instrument can vastly increase workload.

Sterile Cockpit Rule

Reference: 14 CFR 121.542

Commonly known as the sterile cockpit rule, air carrier pilots must refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight.

Critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000′ except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating or chatting.

The equivalent sterile cockpit altitude for light aircraft can be defined as 2,500′ AGL or at any altitude within 10 minutes of landing.

Checklist Usage

Reference: SAFO 17006

Checklist act a systematic guide, ensuring that all procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and nothing is omitted. Furthermore, they standardize flight operations, thereby minimizing the chances of human error.

The proper use of a checklist is dependent on the task being conducted. The situation may be such that using the checklist would be either unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this case, reviewing the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be appropriate.

Checklist Accomplishment Methods

Challenge-And-Response (Do-List): On a typical checklist, there are two columns. The left column is the switch or control that needs to be moved or verified (the challenge). In the right column is the action that needs to be taken with the switch or control (the response).

Each challenge is read and is followed by the necessary task or check being accomplished. A response is made only after verifying the proper configuration or condition exists.

Flow (Do-Verify): A mental “flow” check can be used in high workload situations. The flow is a systematic scan of the instrument panel. It shows the pilot what items to consider, not what to do. After completing the flow, the checklist is read to verify that all items have been completed.

General Procedures for Checklists

Beginning and Ending a Checklist: To complete a checklist, state the name of the checklist, do the checklist, and when finished, state the name of the checklist again along with the statement “checklist complete.”

Interrupted Checklists: If the checklist is only delayed for a brief period, and the pilot is sure of where he or she was interrupted, the item may be completed and the checklist continued. Otherwise, restarting the checklist from the beginning is recommended.

Touch Verification: Pilots sometimes erroneously respond to a checklist item, believing it was accomplished when it was not. Looking at and then touching each gauge, switch, or control helps improve accuracy.

Single-Pilot Operations: During noncritical phases of flight, the pilot should use the challenge-and-response method. The flow (do-verify) method can be used when the workload is higher.

Two-Pilot Operations: The challenge-and-response method is best for a crew environment. The PF should initiate each checklist by calling for it by name. The PNF should perform the checklist while the PF continues to fly. Critical items, such as the flap position, should always be verbalized. The PNF should state when the checklist is complete.

Use of Commercially or Personally Developed Checklists

Note: Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 121 or 135 are prohibited from using unapproved checklists.

Pilots that choose to use commercially or personally developed checklists should compare them to the manufacturer’s checklist and aircraft placards to confirm they are consistent. This will ensure the pilot has all pertinent information during flight operations.

Traffic Pattern Elements

References: AC 90-66, Pilot/Controller Glossary

Entry Leg: The preferred entry is on a 45° angle to the downwind at a point abeam the midpoint of the runway in use, unless otherwise directed by ATC. This leg should be of sufficient length to provide the pilot with a clear view of the traffic pattern and allow adequate time for planning. Descending entries should be avoided.

Downwind Leg: A flightpath parallel to the landing runway in the opposite direction of landing. This leg is flown approximately 1/2 to 1 mile out from the landing runway and at the specified traffic pattern altitude.

Base Leg: A flightpath at a right angle to the landing runway. It extends from the downwind leg to an intersection of the extended runway centerline. The turn to base begins at a point approximately 45° from the approach end of the runway to achieve a 1/2 to 3/4 mile final approach leg.

Final Approach Leg: A descending flightpath starting from the completion of the base-to-final turn and extending to the point of touchdown.

Departure Leg: A straight course aligned with, and leading from, the takeoff runway. The departure leg begins at the point the airplane leaves the ground and continues straight out, leaves on a 45° angle, or until a turn onto the crosswind leg is made.

Upwind Leg: A course flown parallel to the landing runway in the same direction as landing traffic. This leg is flown after go-arounds.

Crosswind Leg: A flightpath that is horizontally perpendicular to the extended centerline of the takeoff runway. It is opposite to the base leg. The turn to crosswind is made when the airplane is beyond 1/2 mile from the runway and within 300′ of traffic pattern altitude.

Traffic Pattern Operations

References: 14 CFR 91.113, 14 CFR 91.126, 14 CFR 91.127, 14 CFR 91.129, 14 CFR 91.130, 14 CFR 91.131, AC 90-66, AIM 4-3-3, AIM 4-3-5, Krug (2014) Legal Interpretation

Sources of Traffic Pattern Information

Traffic pattern information can be divided into two areas:

General information that describes the standard rules and procedures for all traffic patterns.
Local information that describes the specific procedures for each airport of intended use.

General traffic pattern information includes:

14 CFR 91.113: Basic right-of-way rules
14 CFR 91.126 and 91.127: Traffic flow rules at nontowered airports
14 CFR 91.129, 91.130, and 91.131: Operations at airports within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace
AIM Chapter 4, Section 3: Airport Operations
AC 90-66: Recommended Standards Traffic Patterns for Aeronautical Operations at Airports without Operating Control Towers

Local traffic pattern information includes:

Chart Supplements: The direction of turns, the altitude to be flown, and procedures applicable to each airport
NOTAMs: Pertinent information that may affect the use of runways and traffic patterns operations
Traffic Pattern Indicators: Visual markings on the ground that indicate the direction of turns for each runway at an airport

Direction of Turns at Nontowered Airports

Approaching aircraft must make all turns to the left unless approved visual markings indicate that turns should be made to the right.

On Sectional and Terminal Area Charts, right traffic patterns are indicated by the abbreviation “RP” (right pattern), followed by the appropriate runway number(s).

Notes:

When the “RP” abbreviation includes an asterisk (“*”), pilots should refer to the Chart Supplements. It does not indicate that all runways use right-hand turns.
Helicopters and powered parachutes must avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft.

Straight-in-Approaches

The FAA does not regulate traffic pattern entry, only traffic pattern flow. However, the FAA discourages straight-in approaches to nontowered fields to ensure safe and predictable traffic pattern flows.

Occasions where a pilot can choose to execute a straight-in approach for landing include:

A long, straight-in approach for landing.
A visual approach executed as part of the termination of an instrument approach. [IFR]

Pilots who choose to execute a straight-in approach should not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing traffic.

Direction of Turns at Towered Airports

When operating to or from the primary airport within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace, pilots must follow ATC instructions. When approaching to land in an airplane, the pilot must circle to the left, except when conducting a circling approach under standard instrument approach procedures or when ATC specifies otherwise.

Operations at Satellite Airports

When operating to or from a satellite airport within a Class C or Class D airspace area, pilots must operate in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns.

Traffic Pattern Altitudes

Traffic pattern altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from cloud criteria. Pilots of small airplanes should operate at the normal traffic pattern altitude of 1,000′ AGL unless specified otherwise in the Chart Supplements.

Large or Turbine-Powered Airplanes

At airports within Class D, Class, C, and Class C airports, large or turbine-powered airplanes are required by regulation to use at least 1,500′ AGL as the traffic pattern altitude. They must also climb to an altitude of 1,500′ above the surface as rapidly as practicable after takeoff.

Observation of Wind Indicators at Nontowered Airports

When checking the wind and landing direction indicator at an airport without a control tower, pilots should avoid flying through the traffic pattern. Instead, they should check the indicators while flying at an altitude above the traffic pattern.

Once the traffic pattern direction has been determined, pilots should proceed to a point well clear of the pattern before descending to the traffic pattern altitude.

Visual Approach Slope Indicators

Within Class D, Class C, and Class B airspace, all airplanes approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator must maintain an altitude at or above the glidepath until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Recommended Traffic Pattern Speeds

Note:

When published, speeds recommended by the airplane manufacturer have priority.
Pilots should adjust the airspeed, when necessary, to be compatible with other aircraft in the traffic pattern.

Departure and Upwind Leg: VX or VY as appropriate
Crosswind Leg: 1.4 VS1 after reaching the traffic pattern altitude
Downwind Leg: 1.5 VS1
Base Leg: 1.4 VSO
Final Approach: 1.3 VSO plus one-half of the wind gust factor
Maneuvering: 1.4 VS1 minimum while making turns in the clean configuration (e.g., pattern entry or 360° turn for spacing)

The “REACT” Model for Nontowered Airports

The way to fly safely at nontowered airports is to use the “REACT” model:

Radio: Listen to the automated weather observations, if available, and the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) for airport information and traffic advisories. Make position reports using standard phraseology.
Eyes: Look for other traffic. Visual scanning is the top priority when operating in the vicinity of a nontowered airport.
Approach: Turn the landing lights ON within 10 miles of the airport. Complete the descent checklist before entering the traffic pattern.
Courtesy: A little courtesy smooths out most problems. The “me first” attitude can be dangerous.
Traffic Pattern: Follow all recommended procedures. Research the departure and destination airports before flight.

Traffic Pattern Entries

Entry to the downwind leg should be at a 45° angle to the downwind at a point abeam the midpoint of the landing runway unless otherwise directed by ATC.

Arriving aircraft should be at traffic pattern altitude and allow for sufficient time to view the entire traffic pattern before entering. Entries into traffic patterns while descending create hazards and should be avoided.

Entry Methods when Crossing Midfield

As an alternative type of entry, pilots may choose to cross over midfield. The decision should be made carefully with considerations taken for known traffic and parachute operations.

Traffic Pattern Entries — Midfield Traffic Pattern Entry Methods

270° Entry (Preferred)

One method of entry from the opposite side of the pattern is to cross over at least 500′ above the pattern altitude. When well clear of the pattern, approximately 2 miles out, descend to pattern altitude and enter at a 45° angle to the downwind leg.

Because large and turbine aircraft normally fly the traffic pattern at 1,500′ AGL, crossing 500′ above the pattern altitude might place the airplane in conflict with traffic. If large or turbine aircraft operate into the airport, 2,000′ AGL is a safer crossing altitude.

Midfield Entry (Alternative)

An alternate method is to enter on a midfield crosswind at pattern altitude, carefully scan for traffic, and then turn downwind. This entry should not be used when the pattern is congested and pilots should give way to aircraft on the preferred 45° entry and on downwind.

Traffic Pattern Departures

Methods for exiting the traffic pattern after takeoff:

After reaching the pattern attitude, exit with a 45° turn in the direction of the traffic pattern.
Climb straight out on the extended runway centerline. Wait until the airplane is at least 500′ above the traffic pattern altitude before making any turn.

Stall-Related Definitions

References: 14 CFR 23.2110, 14 CFR 23.2150, AC 61-67, AC 120-109

Stall: An aerodynamic condition that occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane’s wings is disrupted, resulting in a loss of lift and an increase in drag. The wing does not entirely stop producing lift, but it is not capable of sustaining level flight.

A stall occurs when the airplane is flown at an angle of attack (AOA) greater than the angle for maximum lift (the critical AOA). This can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting.

Some aircraft do not have a defined stall break. The stall is characterized as more of a “mush.” In such cases, a stall can be characterized by any of the following: (1) buffeting, (2) a lack of pitch authority, (3) a lack of roll control, or (4) an inability to arrest the descent rate (e.g., pitch control full aft).

Buffeting: The beginning of airflow separation over the wing creates a turbulent wake. If the horizontal stabilizer or stabilator is in the turbulent separation wake, vibrations in the flight controls (buffeting) can be felt.

First Indication of a Stall: The initial aural, tactile, or visual sign of an impending stall, such as buffeting or the activation of a stall warning device.

Critical Angle of Attack

The critical AOA is the AOA at which a wing stalls. This angle varies from 16°–20° depending on the airplane’s design. A further increase in AOA does not further increase the lift coefficient (CL).

For any given airplane, the critical AOA remains constant regardless of weight, CG, bank angle, temperature, density altitude, and pitch attitude (relative to the horizon). These factors may affect the speed at which the stall occurs, but not the angle.

Stall Speed

The speed at which the critical angle of attack is exceeded is the stall speed. The term can be misleading because stall speeds listed in the AFM/POH are not constants.

Published stall speeds are valid only:

In unaccelerated 1 G flight.
In coordinated flight.
At one power setting (typically idle).
At one weight (typically maximum gross weight).
At a particular CG (typically maximum forward location).

A stall is the result of excessive AOA, not insufficient airspeed.

Stall Prevention Training

Reference: AC 61-67

Stall prevention training consists of ground and flight instruction to avoid and recognize an impending stall.

Preflight Planning and Inspections

Preflight planning can prevent many of the precursors to stall/spin accidents, including:

Fuel exhaustion/starvation.
Inadequate climb performance due to overloading.
Reduced stability due to an excessively aft CG.
Inadvertent encounters with instrument weather conditions.

A careful preflight inspection should be conducted to ensure:

The fuel is not contaminated by water (to prevent an engine failure on takeoff).
The dynamic and static pressure ports are clear to prevent erroneous airspeed indications.
The aircraft is free of ice, snow, and frost.

Contributing to the accident was the pilot’s inadequate preflight weight and balance calculations, which resulted in the center of gravity being aft of the limit.
NTSB Stall/Spin Accident Report (WPR16LA150)

Defined Minimum Maneuvering Speed

Pilots of transport category airplanes are familiar with the term minimum maneuvering speed, which is the slowest allowable speed to make turns in a specific aircraft configuration or at a certain weight. But manufacturers of small, general aviation airplanes do not publish minimum maneuvering speeds.

For an aircraft without a published minimum maneuvering speed, is it up to the pilot to decide what margin above stall speed to use during turning flight. By designating and adhering to a defined minimum maneuvering speed (DMMS), general aviation pilots can hold themselves to a higher level of safety by reducing the risk of loss of control-inflight (LOC-I) accidents.

The following formula defines a minimum maneuvering speed.

DMMS = Clean Stall Speed (VS1) × 1.4

The DMMS is essentially a 30% buffer above the clean stall speed (VS1) in a 30° bank. Stall speed increases by approximately 7% to 8% in 30° bank (1.3 VS1 + 8% = roughly 1.4).

Times when it is acceptable to go slower than the DMMS:

During takeoff and climbout.
On a base leg and configuring for landing (partial flaps and 1.4 VS0 is recommended).
On final approach (the published speed or 1.3 VS0 is recommended).
During intentional slow flight at a safe altitude.

Best Practices for Using a Minimum Maneuvering Speed

If the aircraft has a traditional airspeed indicator (“steam gauges”), mark the DMMS with a piece of removable tape.
When flying with passengers, inform them of the DMMS and encourage them to speak up if it is violated.
Do not confuse the DMMS with the design maneuvering speed (VA). DMMS is a minimum. VA is a maximum.
Know how the DMMS relates to the airplane’s best glide speed (VG). Understand the importance of each.
For a multi-engine airplane, consider how the DMMS relates to the minimum control speed (VMC).

Stall Recovery Training

References: AC 61-67, AC 120-109, SAFO 17009

Stall recovery training consists of instructor-guided, hands-on experience of applying the stall recovery procedure for impending and full stalls.

Stall recovery training should include:

Maneuver-based training that develops the motor skills necessary to accomplish stall recoveries. Limited emphasis is placed on decision-making skills.
Scenario-based training (SBT) that develops the decision-making skills relating to stall recognition and recovery. SBT is normally introduced after maneuver-based training.

Generic Stall Recovery Template

Disconnect the autopilot (if equipped). Manual control is essential to recovery in all situations.
Pitch nose-down until impending stall indications are eliminated. If the elevator does not provide the needed response, pitch trim may be necessary.
Roll wings level. This orients the lift vector properly for an effective recovery. Do not control the bank angle prior to reducing AOA. Cancel yaw with the rudder to prevent a stall from progressing into a spin.
Add thrust/power. Power should be added promptly, but smoothly as needed, as stalls can occur at high power or low power settings, or at high airspeeds or low airspeeds.
Retract speedbrakes/spoilers (if equipped).
Return to the desired flightpath. Be careful to avoid a secondary stall.

Special Emphasis Items

If a wing drops during a stall, the rudder should be used to prevent a spin entry.
The airspeed indicator sometimes warns of an impending stall. The indicated stall speed depends on acceleration forces and many other factors.
Stall warning devices may not activate during uncoordinated flight due to increased wing loading.
Turns, either vertical (pull-ups) or horizontal, load the wings and increase the stall speed dramatically.
Stall characteristics are usually worse at aft CG due to reduced stability.
Smooth, deliberate, and positive control inputs are necessary to avoid excessive load factors and secondary stalls.
The stall recovery procedures for each airplane may differ. For example, some airplanes don’t have a definite stall break but will sink rapidly beyond the critical AOA.

Angle of Attack Reduction

Reducing the AOA is the most important pilot action in recovering from an impending or full stall.
A proper stall recovery procedure is one that regains positive aircraft control quickly and minimizes the loss of altitude.
The AOA should be reduced until the impending stall indications are eliminated. Generally, this will require lowering the nose to the level flight position, or slightly below it.

Hazards of the Autopilot

The autopilot may mask the detection of the tactile cues used by pilots to detect an impending stall.
The autopilot may make adjustments to the flight controls or trim that may not be easily recognized, especially during high workload situations.
If the autopilot self-disconnects in response to a stall warning, the airplane may abruptly pitch up due to trim application.

Scenario-Based Stall Training

Scenario-based training prepares pilots for real-world stall events that happen unexpectedly. When possible, scenarios should include accident or incident data to provide a realistic learning experience.

The following scenarios can be recreated at a safe altitude for training purposes. Emphasis should be placed on stall avoidance and recognition.

“Moose” Stall

Sometimes accidents occur when there is a distraction by something on the ground. More than a few Alaskan aviators have lost control while maneuvering for a better view of a moose. Low-altitude maneuvering for aerial photography is another activity that creates an outside distraction.

To simulate this scenario:

Establish level flight near the minimum controllable airspeed.
Enter a turn using 30°–40° bank angle while looking outside.
Maintain altitude while turning. Increase back pressure, if necessary, to induce a stall.
Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA.
Roll the wings level and apply additional power as needed.

Engine-Out Stall: “Stretch” the Glide

This scenario simulates what a pilot might attempt on an approach without engine power. If the pilot gets too low, the normal reaction is to increase back pressure on the pitch control. The glide range is reduced as the airplane slows below the best glide speed. The pilot reacts by adding more back pressure until a stall occurs.

To simulate this scenario:

Close the throttle to simulate an engine failure.
Establish a descent at the best glide speed and configure the airplane for a landing.
To simulate correcting for a low approach, prevent the airplane from losing more than 100′ of altitude in 20 seconds.
Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA (throttle would not be available).

Engine Failure After Takeoff

In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out, the airplane is at or near a stalling AOA. At the same time, the pilot may still be holding right rudder. The pilot must immediately lower the nose (get “light in the seat”) to prevent a stall while moving the rudder to ensure coordinated flight.

This scenario demonstrates how quickly a stall can occur in a climb attitude following an engine failure. If the pilot is not mentally prepared for such an event, the startle factor may prevent any action from being taken in the first 3–4 seconds. In that amount of time, the airplane could stall.

To simulate this scenario:

Establish an obstacle clearance configuration at the best angle of climb (VX).
Close the throttle to simulate an engine failure.
Maintain back-pressure on the pitch control to hold the pitch attitude.
Take no action for four seconds to simulate the startle factor. Note the amount of airspeed lost.
Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA (throttle would not be available).

“Impossible Turn” Stall

Attempting to return to the airport after an engine failure during climbout often results in an uncoordinated, accelerated stall. The tendency is for the pilot to use inside rudder pressure to increase the turn rate without increasing the bank angle. The result is often a cross-controlled stall and spin ending in fatalities, which is the reason why critics call it the “impossible” turn.

To simulate this scenario:

Establish a normal climb configuration at the best rate of climb (VY).
Close the throttle to simulate an engine failure.
Pitch down to establish the best glide speed.
Make a 180° turn using a bank angle of approximately 40°.
Optionally, apply inside rudder pressure and opposite aileron to simulate a cross-controlled condition.
To clear a simulated obstacle, attempt to maintain altitude for five seconds while turning.
Recover at the first indication of a stall by reducing the AOA (throttle would not be available). Then roll the wings level.

How to Recover from a Spin

Reference: AC 61-67

There is no universal spin-recovery technique that works for all aircraft. The aircraft’s particular spin characteristics are listed in the AFM/POH. In the absence of the manufacturer’s recommended spin recovery procedures and techniques, the “PARE” recovery procedure is recommended.

What is an Upset?

References: AC 120-111, SAFO 17009

An upset occurs when an airplane in flight unintentionally exceeds the parameters normally experienced in flight or training.

Parameters that define an upset:

Pitch: Greater than 25° nose up or 10° nose down.
Bank Angle: Greater than 45° in either direction.
Airspeed: Inappropriate for the conditions.

Note: The reference to inappropriate airspeeds describes a number of undesired aircraft states, including stalls. However, stalls are directly related to the angle of attack (AOA), not airspeed.

Loss of Control Accidents

References: AC 61-98, AC 120-111, FAA Safety Briefing Jul/Aug 2018

An upset often leads to a loss of control (LOC) accident. Accidents in the LOC category result from situations in which a pilot should have maintained or regained aircraft control but did not.

LOC is divided into two categories:

Loss of Control-Inflight (LOC-I): A significant deviation of an aircraft from the intended flightpath (e.g., base-to-final stall).
Loss of Control-Ground (LOC-G): Loss of aircraft control while the aircraft is on the ground (e.g., runway excursion).

Why Loss of Control Accidents Occur

Loss of control of an aircraft is always preceded by a loss of command of the aircraft.
Cirrus Owners and Pilots Association

There are five main reasons why LOC accidents occur in GA airplanes:

Continuing VFR flight into IMC.
A distraction caused by something outside or inside the airplane.
An inappropriate response to an emergency event (startle response).
Inadequate aircraft handling skills, particularly in crosswind operations.
Inadequate risk management.

Best Practices to Prevent LOC Accidents

Review and rehearse emergency procedures often.
Participate in the FAA WINGS–Pilot Proficiency Program and other safety programs.
Complete a spin, emergency maneuver, or upset prevention and recovery training course.
Recognize and maintain a heightened awareness of situations that increase the risk of a LOC.
Treat recurrent training, such as a flight review, not as a chore, but as a great opportunity to learn something new.
Review the aircraft’s limitations, abnormal and emergency procedures, and performance numbers before they are needed.

Causal and Contributing Factors to LOC-I Accidents

The top causal and contributing factors that have led to an upset and resulted in a loss of control-inflight (LOC-I) accident are:

Environmental factors
Mechanical factors
Human factors
Stall-related factors

Environmental Factors

Environmental factors that can cause upset and LOC-I include:

Turbulence, such as clear air turbulence, mountain waves, wind shear, microbursts, and wake turbulence.
Structural icing, which can significantly degrade airplane performance, resulting in a stall if not handled correctly.

Environmental-related upsets can be prevented by:

Making thorough preflight weather assessments.
Using wake turbulence avoidance procedures.

Mechanical Factors

Mechanical factors that can cause upset and LOC-I include:

Malfunction of the autopilot.
Jammed flight controls.
Asymmetrical flaps.
Runaway trim.

Mechanical-related upsets can be prevented by:

Following proper maintenance and inspection procedures.
Performing advanced preflight checks (going above and beyond the normal preflight checklist).

Human Factors

Human factors that can cause upset and LOC-I include:

Continued VFR flight into IMC.
Diverting attention away from basic airplane control responsibilities.
Spatial disorientation or sensory illusions.
Psychological or physiological reactions to an actual upset (e.g., startle and surprise response)

Human-factor-related upsets can be prevented by:

Instrument proficiency training.
Risk management training (“breaking” the error chain through sound judgment).
Maintaining a heightened awareness of situations that increase the risk of LOC.
Conducting scenario-based training using realistic distractions to evoke a startle and surprise response.

Stall-Related Factors

A recurring causal factor in LOC-I accidents is the pilot’s inappropriate reaction to impending stalls and full stalls.

Stall-related upsets can be prevented by:

Understanding how the airplane performs in the slow flight regime.
Learning to recognize an impending stall by sight, sound, and feel.
Conducting stall awareness and scenario-based stall training.

Managing Priorities During Emergencies

“Aviate, navigate, communicate” is a phrase used by pilots to remember the priorities of tasks during emergencies.

The priorities are:

Aviate: Maintaining positive aircraft control has priority over all other considerations, including airplane configuration and checklists.
Navigate: Know where you are and where you intend to go.
Communicate: Let someone know your position and intentions on the emergency radio frequency (121.5 MHz) or by contacting a nearby ATC facility. If already in radio contact with a facility, do not change frequencies unless instructed to change.

Checklist Usage During Emergencies

Aircraft checklists are typically divided into normal and emergency procedures. Manufacturers may publish emergency checklists in an abbreviated form, followed by amplified (expanded) checklists that provide additional information.

Immediate Action Items

Certain emergencies require immediate action on the pilot’s part. Airplane manufacturers typically denote immediate action items in a checklist with a bold font and place them before the less critical items.

During an emergency, pilots should perform the immediate action items from memory and then refer to the written checklist.

Benefits of a Well-Rehearsed Checklist

Unexpected events, such as an engine failure after takeoff, create chaos. Checklists provide a routine (ritual) for pilots to fall back on during this time of confusion, helping them to maintain control of the situation.

Ritual makes sense out of chaos.

Declaring an Emergency

References: AIM 6-3-1, AIM 6-3-2, Pilot/Controller Glossary, FAA Order JO 7110.65

Emergency: A distress or urgent situation that requires special handling of an aircraft by ATC. By declaring an emergency with ATC, the aircraft becomes a priority.

Not all malfunctions rise to the level of a true emergency. Pilots should act in the best interest of safety by exercising PIC authority and declaring an emergency with ATC when the situation calls for it.

Types of emergencies:

Distress: A condition of being threatened by serious or imminent danger requiring immediate assistance.
Urgency: A condition of being concerned about safety and requiring timely but not immediate assistance.

Pilots in distress should declare an emergency by beginning the initial communication with “Mayday,” preferably repeated three times. “Pan-Pan” should be used for an urgent condition.

ATC requires the following information for inflight emergencies:

Aircraft identification and type
Nature of the emergency
The pilot’s intentions

If able, pilots should include the following information:

Present position and heading (the last known position if lost)
Altitude or flight level
Fuel remaining in minutes
Number of people on board
Any other useful information

Declaring a Minimum Fuel Advisory

Reference: AIM 5-5-15

Pilots should notify ATC of a minimum fuel status by using the term “minimum fuel” when the fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the destination, the aircraft cannot accept any undue delay. This is not an emergency but an advisory that indicates an emergency is possible should any undue delay occur.

A minimum fuel status does not imply a need for traffic priority. Pilots should declare an emergency when traffic priority is required due to low fuel.

Emergency Transponder Codes and ADS-B Status

References: AIM 4-5-7, AIM 6-2-2, AIM 6-3-4, AIM 6-4-2

Transponder Codes

7500: Hijacking
7600: Communications failure
7700: General emergency

Pilots should avoid inadvertently selecting these codes when making routine code changes to prevent false alarms.

ADS-B Status

ADS-B systems integrated with the transponder will automatically set the appropriate emergency status when an emergency code is entered into the transponder. Otherwise, the status is entered through a pilot interface.

Emergency Deviation from FAA Regulations

References: 14 CFR 91.3, AIM 6-1-1

In an emergency requiring immediate action, pilots may deviate from a regulation to the extent necessary to meet that emergency. Upon request, the PIC must send a written report of the deviation to the FAA.

Emergency Deviation from ATC Clearances and Instructions

References: 14 CFR 91.123, AIM 6-1-1

Pilots may deviate from an ATC clearance or instruction during an emergency. ATC must be notified as soon as possible.

If requested by ATC, the PIC must submit a detailed report (written) of the emergency within 48 hours to the manager of the ATC facility.

Flight Review Checklist

Pilot’s Name:	Pilot’s Total Flight Time:
Date and Location:	Pilot Certificate Number:
Aircraft Make & Model:	Grade of Pilot Certificate:
Pilot’s Time in Type:	Rating(s):

Pre-Review Considerations

☐ Type of equipment typically flown
☐ Nature of flight operations
☐ Amount and recency of flight experience

☐ Learning goals
☐ Instructor qualifications
☐ Preflight planning assignment

Agreement on the Conduct of the Flight Review

☐ Estimated training time
☐ Completion standards

☐ PIC designation
☐ Instructor’s plan of action

Ground Review (One Hour Minimum)

☐ General operating and flight rules (14 CFR Part 91)*
☐ Recent industry and regulatory changes
☐ General aviation security
☐ Pilot qualifications
☐ Airworthiness requirements
☐ Cross-country flight planning
☐ Airspace and weather minimums
☐ Performance and limitations
☐ Operation of systems

☐ Risk management
☐ Flight deck management
☐ Runway incursion risks and avoidance
☐ Airport signs, markings, and lighting
☐ Traffic pattern operations
☐ Stabilized approach concept
☐ Stall and spin awareness
☐ Upset prevention and loss of control accidents
☐ _______________________________

* Required by 14 CFR 61.56

Flight Maneuvers and Procedures (One Hour Minimum)

☐ Installed equipment review
☐ Normal takeoff and landing
☐ Crosswind takeoff and landing
☐ Soft-field takeoff and landing
☐ Short-field takeoff and landing
☐ Rejected takeoff
☐ Go-around/rejected landing
☐ Power-off 180° accuracy approach and landing
☐ No-flap landing
☐ Steep turns
☐ Ground reference maneuvers

☐ Navigation, diversion, and lost procedures
☐ Slow flight and proficiency stalls
☐ Demonstration and scenario-based stalls
☐ Flight by reference to the instruments (hood)
☐ Recovery from unusual flight attitudes (hood)
☐ Emergency descent
☐ Emergency approach and landing (simulated)
☐ Systems and equipment malfunctions (simulated)
☐ Engine failure after liftoff (simulated)
☐ Multi-engine operations [AMEL]
☐ _____________________________

Post-Review Considerations

☐ Pilot’s self-assessment
☐ Instructor’s assessment
☐ Resolution of questions

☐ Establishment of personal minimums
☐ Establishment of a personal proficiency plan
☐ Logbook entries and endorsement

Completion of the Flight Review

A flight review, which consisted of a knowledge review and skill demonstration of the items noted above, has been satisfactorily completed.

________________________________________________
Pilot’s Signature

________________________________________________
Instructor’s Signature

Flight Lesson Briefing Guide

Preflight Briefing

Overview

Aircraft type and tail number
IFR or VFR
Objectives and expectations
The planned flight duration

The Plan

The flight scenario
Route of flight
Location of the training area
Route hazards (e.g., airspace, terrain, and obstacles)
Location and types of maneuvers and approaches

The Pilot

Designation of the PIC as defined by 14 CFR 1.1
Designation of the pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring (PM)
Physical impairments and external pressures (I’M SAFE)

The Plane

Preflight inspection completion status
Fuel requirements, fuel on board, and planned reserves
Open maintenance write-ups (squawks)
Inspection status (e.g., 100-hour and annual)

Weight & Balance and Performance

Takeoff weight and center of gravity
Runway lengths
Takeoff and landing distance information

Weather and NOTAMs

Weather reports and forecasts
AIRMETs, SIGMETS, and convective activity
Other hazards (e.g., crosswinds or density altitude)
NOTAMs and Flight Restrictions (TFRs)

Flight Deck Management

Positive transfer of the flight controls:
- “You have the flight controls.”
- “I have the controls.”
- “You have the flight controls.”
Expectations on the use of the autopilot and avionics
Realistic distractions may be used

Safety Considerations

Before each maneuver (CHAPS):
- Clear the area (clearing turns)
- Heading established and noted
- Altitude established
- Position near an emergency landing area
- Set power and aircraft configuration
Maintain awareness of other traffic by:
- Visual scanning (see-and-avoid)
- Monitoring the traffic display
- Monitoring radio communications

Crew Concepts and Operating Procedures

Review of standard operating procedures and callouts
The instructor is available to:
- Demonstrate flight maneuvers
- Assist with operation of avionics/navigation equipment
- Aid in maintaining situational awareness
- Provide temporary relief from PF duties

Simulated Instrument Flight

Designation and responsibilities of the safety pilot
The view limiting device will be removed if ATC calls out traffic or if it is alerted by the traffic display

Simulated Emergencies

The throttle will be used to simulate engine failures
Simulated emergencies will be announced (e.g., “simulated engine failure” as the throttle is reduced)
The movement of critical controls and switches will be simulated by a hand movement to the control/switch and a verbal announcement (e.g., “fuel selector to OFF”)

Multi-engine training:

Above a safe altitude, the mixture may be used to simulate engine failures
Both throttles are available for go-arounds and when below 400′ AGL during landing

Real Emergencies

In the event of an emergency, the PF will keep the controls until advised otherwise
The PM will handle the radios and perform the appropriate checklist
If the safe outcome of a maneuver is in doubt, the instructor will announce and physically take the flight controls
Emergency transfer of the flight controls:
- Instructor: “My controls!”
- Learner: “Your controls” and begins PM duties.

Taxi Procedures

The taxi diagram will be displayed
The route will be briefed before moving
Brake test (both sides)
No “heads-down” time while moving
The taxi/recognition light will be used while moving
The parking brake may be used but not relied upon
The takeoff will be briefed when stationary

Review

Would you like to add anything?
Go/No-Go decision

Postflight Debriefing

Guided Self-Assessment

Replay

Learner:
- Describes the flight from a personal point of view.
Instructor:
- Guides the learner with a series of questions:
  - How do you think that went?
  - Did anything unexpected happen?
- Listens carefully.
- Focuses the discussion on areas that need attention.
- Explores any differences in perceptions.
- Helps the learner integrate perceptions into meaningful insights.

Note: A recorded video or data from a flight tracking app can be used as a tool for a more literal replay of the day’s activities.

Reconstruct

Learner:
- Identifies the things that he or she would have, could have, or should have done differently (“would’a, could’a, should’a” elements)
Instructor:
- Guides the learner with a series of questions:
  - If we did the flight again, what would you do differently?
  - Were any standards, policies, or procedures compromised?
- Reminds the learner of the things that went right.
- Connects the learner’s responses with useful suggestions.
- Maintains a helpful self-evaluation rather than a destructive self-beating.

Reflect

Learner:
- Identifies and verbalizes thought processes that cannot be observed
Instructor:
- Guides the learner with a series of questions:
  - What was the most important thing you learned today?
  - What part of the lesson was easiest for you?
  - What part was hardest?
- Listens carefully to evaluate the learner’s decision-making skills.

Redirect

Learner:
- Correlates the lessons learned with past experiences.
- Considers how to apply those insights to future flights.
Instructor:
- Guides the learner with a series of questions:
  - How does this experience relate to previous lessons?
  - Which aspects of this experience might apply to future situations, and how?

Assessment by the Instructor

This in-depth discussion compares the instructor’s assessment to the learner’s self-assessment. Through this discussion, the instructor and the learner jointly determine the learner’s progress.

Performance and progress can be measured by the use of:

A structured rubric.
The appropriate Airman Certification Standards (ACS).

Crew Briefings and Callouts

Taxi Briefing (ARCH)

Assigned or expected runway
Route
Crossings and hold short instructions
Hot spots and hazards

Takeoff Briefing (TNEY)

Threats (biggest challenges)
Normal procedures
Emergency procedures
Your questions?

Takeoff Briefing – Emergency Procedures

Engine Failure or Abnormality Prior to Rotation

Abort the takeoff:

Maintain directional control
Throttle Lever(s): IDLE
Wheel Brakes: APPLY MAX

If insufficient runway remains for a safe stop:

Maintain directional control and avoid obstacles
Mixture(s): CUTOFF
Fuel Selector(s): OFF
Ignition and Electrical: OFF

Engine Failure After Liftoff and Sufficient Runway Remains to Stop

Pitch down and maintain directional control
Establish the approach speed for the flap setting
Throttle Lever(s): IDLE
Land straight ahead
Wheel Brakes: APPLY MAX

Engine Failure After Liftoff and Below the Turnback Altitude [ASEL]

Pitch down and maintain directional control
Establish the final approach speed
Pick the most suitable area ahead
Flaps: FULL (before landing)
Mixture(s): CUTOFF
Fuel Selector(s): OFF
Ignition and Electrical: OFF

Engine Failure After Liftoff and Decision Made to Continue [AMEL]

Maintain directional control and airspeed (VYSE)
Mixtures: FULL FORWARD
Propeller Controls: FULL FORWARD
Throttle Levers: FULL FORWARD
Flaps and Landing Gear: UP
Identify, verify, and feather the inoperative engine
Climb to a safe altitude

Passenger Briefing (SAFETY)

Seatbelts
Air (environmental controls)
Fire Extinguisher
Exits, emergencies, and equipment
Traffic and talking
Your questions?

Crew Resource Management Briefing

Designation of the PIC defined by 14 CFR 1.1
Designation of the pilot flying (PF) and the pilot monitoring (PM)
Review of standard operating procedures
Proper exchange of the flight controls
Guidelines for the use of automated systems
PF promotes teamwork and safety:
- “Bring my attention to anything that looks unusual, confusing, or incorrect.”
- “If you see anything hazardous, take any action that is necessary for our safety.”
- “Feel free to interrupt me if you have any questions about what I am doing or saying.”
- “If you need to be heads-down or off the radio, please let me know.”

Visual Approach Briefing

Active or expected runway
Field elevation and traffic pattern altitude
Wind direction and velocity
Approach type, final approach speed, and configuration
Planned touchdown and aiming points
Go-around procedure

Instrument Approach Briefing

Type of approach
Airport name and identifier
Chart number
ATIS/Weather information
Localizer/Navigational aid frequency
FAF and FAF crossing altitude
Final approach course
Initial rate of descent
DH/MDA
Airport elevation
Minimum safe altitude(s)
Fixes and altitude restrictions
Missed approach point and procedure
Runway dimensions and visual approach aids
Direction of runway turnoff
Taxi hazards (e.g., hot spots and parallel runways)
Parking location

Callouts During Approach

Glideslope/Localizer/Course alive
1/2 dot below glideslope/glidepath
500′ above, 100′ above, and minimums
Runway in sight or approach lights in sight
Landing or missed approach (PF)

FAR/AIM Quick Reference

Pilot

Experience:

Flight Review (Ref: 14 CFR 61.56)
Recent Flight Experience (Ref: 14 CFR 61.57)

Certificates and Documents:

Required Personal Documents (Ref: 14 CFR 61.3)
Duration of Pilot and Instructor Certificates and Privileges (Ref: 14 CFR 61.19)
Medical Certificates: Requirement and Duration (Ref: 14 CFR 61.23)
Medical Certificates: Replacement (Ref: 14 CFR 61.29)
Prohibition on Operations During Medical Deficiency (Ref: 14 CFR 61.53)
Pilot Logbooks (Ref: 14 CFR 61.51)

Responsibility:

Responsibility and Authority of the PIC (Ref: 14 CFR 91.3)
Preflight Action (Ref: 14 CFR 91.103)
Use of Safety Belts and Passenger Briefings (Ref: 14 CFR 91.105, 14 CFR 91.107)
Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.123)

Cautions:

Careless or Reckless Operation (Ref: 14 CFR 91.13)
Dropping Objects (Ref: 14 CFR 91.15)
Alcohol or Drugs (Ref: 14 CFR 91.17)
Supplemental Oxygen (Ref: 14 CFR 91.211)
Fitness for Flight (Ref: AIM 8-1)

Aircraft

Airworthiness:

Civil Aircraft Airworthiness (Ref: 14 CFR 91.7)
Aircraft Flight Manual, Markings, and Placards (Ref: 14 CFR 91.9)
Fuel Requirements for Flight in VFR Conditions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.151)
Fuel Requirements for Flight in IFR Conditions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.167)
Required Aircraft Documents (Ref: 14 CFR 91.203)
Instrument and Equipment Requirements (Ref: 14 CFR 91.205)
Emergency Locator Transmitter Requirements (Ref: 14 CFR 91.207)
Aircraft Lights (Ref: 14 CFR 91.209)
Inoperative Instruments and Equipment (Ref: 14 CFR 91.213, AC 91-67)
ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting Equipment and Use (Ref: 14 CFR 91.215)
ADS-B Out (Ref: 14 CFR 91.225, AC 90-114)

Maintenance:

Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities (Ref: 14 CFR 91.403, 14 CFR 91.405)
Operation After Maintenance (Ref: 14 CFR 91.407)
Maintenance Records (Ref: 14 CFR 91.417, AC 43-9)
Preventive Maintenance (Ref: 14 CFR Part 43 Appendix A, AC 43-12)

Inspections:

Annual and 100-Hour (Ref: 14 CFR 91.409)
Altimeter and Pitot-Static System (Ref: 14 CFR 91.411)
ATC Transponder Inspections (Ref: 14 CFR 91.413)
ELT Batteries and Inspections (Ref: 14 CFR 91.207)
IFR Operations: VOR Equipment Check (Ref: 14 CFR 91.171)

Environment

Aircraft:

Operating Near Other Aircraft (Ref: 14 CFR 91.111)
“See and Avoid” Concept (Ref: 14 CFR 91.113, AIM 5-5-8, AC 90-48)
Right-of-Way Rules (Ref: 14 CFR 91.113)
Aircraft Wake Turbulence (Ref: AC 90-23)

Airports:

Airport Marking Aids and Signs (Ref: AIM 2-3)
Airport Operations (Ref: AIM 4-3)
ATC Light Signals (Ref: 14 CFR 91.125)
Traffic Patterns (Ref: 14 CFR 91.126, AC 90-66)
Nontowered Airports (Ref: 14 CFR 91.126, 14 CFR 91.127, AC 90-66)
Airports in Class D Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.129)
Airports in Class C Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.130)
Airports in Class B Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.131)

Airspace and Navigation:

Navigation Aids (Ref: AIM 1-1)
Types of Airspace (Ref: AIM 3-1)
Controlled Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.127, 14 CFR 91.129, 14 CFR 91.131, AIM 3-2)
Class G Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.126, AIM 3-3)
Special Use Airspace (Ref: 14 CFR 91.133, AIM 3-4)
Other Airspace Areas (Ref: AIM 3-5)
Maximum Authorized Speeds (Ref: 14 CFR 91.117, 14 CFR 91.817)
Minimum Safe Altitudes (Ref: 14 CFR 91.119)
Flight Restrictions (Ref: 14 CFR 91.137, 14 CFR 91.141, 14 CFR 91.143, 14 CFR 91.145, AC 91-63)
Emergency Air Traffic Rules (Ref: 14 CFR 91.139, AIM 5-6, AC 91-63)
Air Defense Identification Zones (Ref: 14 CFR Part 99, AIM 5-6-4, AIM 5-6-16)
Altimeter Settings (Ref: 14 CFR 91.121, AIM 7-2, AIM 7-3)
VFR and SVFR Weather Minimums (Ref: 14 CFR 91.155, 14 CFR 91.157)
VFR Cruising Altitude (Ref: 14 CFR 91.159, AIM 3-1-5)
IFR Clearance and Flight Plan Required (Ref: 14 CFR 91.173)
IFR Minimum Altitudes (Ref: 14 CFR 91.177)
IFR Cruising Altitude (Ref: 14 CFR 91.179)

ATC Services and Procedures:

Services Available to Pilots (Ref: AIM 4-1)
Radio Communications (Ref: AIM 4-2, Pilot/Controller Glossary)
ATC Light Gun Signals (Ref: AIM 4-3-13)
Preflight Preparation (Ref: AIM 5-1)
IFR Operations: Takeoffs and Landings (Ref: 14 CFR 91.175)
IFR Operations: Course to be Flown (Ref: 14 CFR 91.181)
IFR Operations: Communications (Ref: 14 CFR 91.183, Pilot/Controller Glossary)
IFR Operations: Two-Way Radio Communications Failure (Ref: 14 CFR 91.185)
IFR Operations: Malfunction Reports (Ref: 14 CFR 91.187)
IFR Operations: ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation (Ref: AIM 4-4)
IFR Operations: Departure Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-2)
IFR Operations: En Route Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-3)
IFR Operations: Arrival Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-4)
Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities (Ref: AIM 5-5)
National Security and Interception Procedures (Ref: AIM 5-6)

External Pressures

Risk Management (The PAVE Checklist and The 3P Model)
Operational Pitfalls (Ref: AC 60-22)
Hazardous Attitudes (Ref: AC 60-22)

Ramp Inspection Checklist

Aircraft Documents, Placards, and Markings

	Reference	Requirements and Limitations
☐	91.203	Airworthiness Certificate Airworthiness Certificate displayed at the cabin or cockpit entrance
☐	91.203	Registration Certificate of issued to the specific aircraft and owner
☐	FCC Rule	Current Aircraft Radio Station License (for international flights, air carriers, or aircraft 12,500 pounds or more)
☐	91.9	Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (current revision)
☐	AFM/POH	Weight and balance data and equipment list
☐	FSIMS 6-1-4	Pertinent and current aeronautical charts (large and turbine-powered AMEL only)
☐	23.2610	Required markings and placards are present and legible (refer to the AFM/POH), including a compass correction card, if required under applicable airworthiness standards
☐	45.11	Fireproof, external data plate secured to the fuselage exterior aft of the rear-most entrance door or near the tail (placement varies if manufactured before March 7, 1988)

Aircraft Records, Equipment, and Inspections

	Reference	Requirements and Limitations
☐	91.409	Progressive or annual inspection
☐	91.409	100-Hour inspection (if operated for hire)
☐	91.411	Certification of each static pressure system, altimeter, and automatic pressure altitude reporting system (IFR only; within 24 calendar months)
☐	91.413	Transponder certification (within 24 calendar months)
☐	91.207	Emergency locator transmitter inspection (within 12 calendar months) and battery life
☐	91.171	VOR equipment check (if using under IFR; within 30 days)
☐	91.213	Operational status of inoperative instruments and equipment
☐	91.417	Status and compliance with Airworthiness Directives
☐	91.417	Current status of life-limited parts per the Type Certificate Data Sheets
☐	91.417	FAA Form 337 for each major repair or alteration (onboard the aircraft if it is for a fuel tank)

Pilot Records and Documents

	Reference	Requirements and Limitations
☐	61.3	Pilot certificate
☐	61.3	Flight instructor certificate (if applicable)
☐	FCC Rule	Restricted Radio Operators Permit (if flying or communicating internationally)
☐	61.3	Valid driver’s license, U.S. Armed Forces’ ID card, passport, or other acceptable ID
☐	61.3	Medical Certificate (if required) and Statement of Demonstrated Ability (if applicable)
☐	61.3	Pilot logbook or records to show proof of operating privileges (if applicable)
☐	61.57	Recent flight experience

VFR Cross-Country Checklist

Gather Resources and Develop the “Big Picture”

1. Obtain aeronautical charts that cover the area of flight and check their currency.

2. Locate the departure and destination airports. Determine the best route with consideration for airspace and obstructions.

3. Consult the Chart Supplements for communication frequencies, runway information, pattern altitudes, and field elevation.

4. Obtain a standard weather briefing. Identify PIREPs, NOTAMs, and TFRs affecting the flight.

Complete a Navigation Log

5. When using paper charts, draw a true course (TC) line to connect the departure airport and destination airport. Trace over the course highlighter to help identify it more easily while en route.

6. Select prominent en route checkpoints and measure the distance between each to ensure adequate spacing.

7. Determine the TC between each checkpoint on the Sectional Chart.

8. Identify the magnetic variation at each point by referring to the isogonic lines.

9. Determine the magnetic course (MC) by adding or subtracting (-E, +W) the magnetic variation to or from the TC.

10. Determine winds and temperatures aloft by interpolating between reported altitudes. To determine the outside air temperature (OAT) at altitudes without a reported temperature, use the standard temperature lapse rate of -2°C (-3.5°F) per thousand feet.

11. Determine the optimal cruising altitude based on the winds aloft, minimum safe altitudes, and the direction of flight:

From MC 0° through 179° (inclusive): Use odd thousands plus 500′; and
From MC 180° through 359° (inclusive): Use even thousands plus 500′.

12. Determine the wind correction angles (WCA) for the route segments. Winds aloft are reported in true headings.

13. Compute the magnetic heading (MH) and compass heading (CH).

14. Compute the estimated ground speed and ETE.

15. Determine the fuel required for all route segments plus the reserve requirement. Confirm that there is sufficient fuel on board to complete the flight. If not, plan a fuel stop.

Make Sure the Plan Works

16. Determine the aircraft’s weight and CG.

17. Compute takeoff and landing distances and ensure adequate runway length is available.

Finishing Touches

18. Draw a diagram of the runway layout to help identify the airport during flight. Mark on the diagram the direction of the traffic pattern, the traffic pattern altitude, and the expected entry direction.

19. From the Chart Supplements, identify en route weather reporting stations and note the FSS frequencies.

20. Identify potential risks using the PAVE checklist (Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures). Determine a mitigation strategy for each.

21. Ensure that there are no incomplete items on the flight planning log.

Go or No Go?

22. Make a final go/no-go decision.

23. File a flight plan.

Aeromedical Factors Quick Review

Medical Factor	Causes	Symptoms	Prevention and Corrective Actions
Hypoxia	lack of oxygen	euphoria, headache, dizziness, drowsiness, tingling sensations, cyanosis	use supplemental oxygen, descend to a lower altitude
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning	exhaust fumes, cigarette smoke	hypoxia symptoms, muscle weakness, confusion	turn off cabin heater, open fresh air vents, use supplemental oxygen
Hyperventilation	breathing too fast	hypoxia symptoms, muscle spasms	breathe slower, breathe into a bag
Middle Ear and Sinus Problems	trapped gasses (cold, allergies, inflammation)	pain due to pressure differences	valsalva maneuver, slower descent
Spatial Disorientation	loss of horizon or visual references	loss of control, confusion about the airplane’s attitude	avoid sudden head movements, focus on (and trust) the flight instruments
Motion Sickness	motion not matching visual clues, turbulence	loss of appetite, sweating, headaches, disorientation, nausea, vomiting	look out to the horizon, avoid rough air and abrupt maneuvers, open fresh air vents, avoid unnecessary head movements
Fatigue	physical exertion, lack of sleep	attention lapses, lack of awareness, error accumulation, low motivation	obtain adequate rest, mitigate the underlying problem
Stress	environmental, physiological, or psychological stressors	fatigue, upset stomach problems sleeping	physical fitness, balanced schedule, set reasonable standards
Dehydration	critical loss of water or electrolytes	fatigue, thirst, headache, abdominal cramps, dizziness	drink plenty of water, avoid diuretic drinks, wear lightweight clothing
Alcohol	consumption, disregard for regulations	impaired judgment, decreased sense of responsibility, reduced coordination	don’t fly for at least 8 hours (12–16 hours recommended)
Decompression Sickness	formation of nitrogen bubbles during scuba diving	the bends (pains in the joints), peculiar sensations of the skin, spotty rashes, itching, tingling	follow the recommended waiting time after diving (12 or 24 hours)

Duration of Medical Certificates

If you hold a	And on the date of examination for the medical certificate you were	And you are conducting an operation requiring	Then your medical certificate expires, for that operation, at the end of the last day of the
First-class medical	(i) Under age 40	an ATP certificate	12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(ii) Age 40 or older	an ATP certificate	6th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(iii) Any age	a commercial pilot certificate or an ATC tower operator certificate	12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(iv) Under age 40	a recreational pilot certificate, a private pilot certificate, a flight instructor certificate (when acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember in operations other than glider or balloon), a student pilot certificate, or a sport pilot certificate (when not using a U.S. driver’s license as medical qualification)	60th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(v) Age 40 or older	a recreational pilot certificate, a private pilot certificate, a flight instructor certificate (when acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember in operations other than glider or balloon), a student pilot certificate, or a sport pilot certificate (when not using a U.S. driver’s license as medical qualification)	24th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
Second-class medical	(i) Any age	a commercial pilot certificate or an ATC tower operator certificate	12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(ii) Under age 40	a recreational pilot certificate, a private pilot certificate, a flight instructor certificate (when acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember in operations other than glider or balloon), a student pilot certificate, or a sport pilot certificate (when not using a U.S. driver’s license as medical qualification)	60th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(iii) Age 40 or older	a recreational pilot certificate, a private pilot certificate, a flight instructor certificate (when acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember in operations other than glider or balloon), a student pilot certificate, or a sport pilot certificate (when not using a U.S. driver’s license as medical qualification)	24th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
Third-class medical	(i) Under age 40	a recreational pilot certificate, a private pilot certificate, a flight instructor certificate (when acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember in operations other than glider or balloon), a student pilot certificate, or a sport pilot certificate (when not using a U.S. driver’s license as medical qualification)	60th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.
	(ii) Age 40 or older	a recreational pilot certificate, a private pilot certificate, a flight instructor certificate (when acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember in operations other than glider or balloon), a student pilot certificate, or a sport pilot certificate (when not using a U.S. driver’s license as medical qualification)	24th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate.

Reference: 14 CFR 61.23

Airspace Rules and Weather Minimums

Airspace	Class A	Class B	Class C	Class D	Class E	Class G
Operations Permitted	IFR	IFR and VFR	IFR and VFR	IFR and VFR	IFR and VFR	IFR and VFR
Entry Prerequisites	ATC Clearance	ATC Clearance	IFR: Clearance VFR: Two-Way Radio Contact	IFR: Clearance VFR: Two-Way Radio Contact	IFR: Clearance	None
Minimum Pilot Qualifications	Instrument Rating	Student1 or Private	No Specific Requirement	No Specific Requirement	No Specific Requirement	No Specific Requirement
Equipment	IFR Equipped, Two-Way Radio, Mode C Transponder, ADS-B Out, TIS-B	Two-Way Radio, Mode C Transponder, ADS-B Out	Two-Way Radio, Mode C Transponder, ADS-B Out	Two-Way Radio	Mode C Transponder2, ADS-B Out2,3	Mode C Transponder2
VFR Minimum Visibility Below 10,000 MSL	N/A	3 SM	3 SM	3 SM	3 SM	Day: 1 SM4 Night: 3 SM4
VFR Minimum Visibility 10,000 MSL and Above	N/A	3 SM	3 SM	3 SM	5 SM	5 SM
VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds Below 10,000 MSL	N/A	Clear of Clouds	500′ Below 1,000′ Above 2,000′ Horizontal	500′ Below 1,000′ Above 2,000′ Horizontal	500′ Below 1,000′ Above 2,000′ Horizontal	500′ Below 1,000′ Above 2,000′ Horizontal
VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds 10,000 MSL and Above	N/A	Clear of Clouds	500′ Below 1,000′ Above 2,000′ Horizontal	500′ Below 1,000′ Above 2,000′ Horizontal	1,000′ Below 1,000′ Above 1 SM Horizontal	1,000′ Below 1,000′ Above 1 SM Horizontal
Aircraft Separation Provided	All	All	IFR/IFR, SVFR/SVFR, SVFR/IFR, VFR/IFR, and Runway Operations	IFR/IFR, SVFR/SVFR, SVFR/IFR, and Runway Operations	IFR/IFR, SVFR/SVFR, SVFR/IFR	None

Footnotes:

Student pilot operations at some Class B airports are prohibited (Ref: 14 CFR Part 91 Appendix D)
Required above 10,000′ MSL, excluding the airspace at and below 2,500′ AGL (Ref: 14 CFR 91.215)
Required in Class E airspace at and above 3,000′ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico from the coastline to 12 NM (Ref: 14 CFR 91.225)
When flying in Class G airspace at 1,200′ AGL or below:
- Day: 1 SM visibility, clear of clouds (Ref: 14 CFR 91.155)
- Night: 3 SM visibility, 500′ below, 1,000′ above, 2,000′ horizontal (Ref: 14 CFR 91.155)

Exceptions:

14 CFR 91.155(b) states that in class G airspace below 1,200′ AGL during night hours, when the visibility is not less than 1 SM, an airplane may be operated clear of clouds if operated in an airport traffic pattern within 1/2 mile of the runway.
14 CFR 91.155(c) prohibits pilots from operating beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000′. This includes Class E surface areas.

Stratification of the U.S. Airspace System

Stabilized Approach Criteria

Stabilized Approach Concept

A stabilized approach is characterized by a constant-angle, constant-rate of descent approach profile ending near the touchdown point, where the landing maneuver begins. Slight and infrequent adjustments are all that’s needed to maintain a stabilized approach.

Stabilized Approach Criteria

C-FLAPS

Checklists: Complete
Flightpath: Established (±1 dot of deflection horizontally and vertically)
Landing Configuration: Set
Airspeed: Established (+10/-5 knots)
Power: Set
Sink Rate: No greater than 1,000 FPM

Notes:

These parameters should be adjusted for the aircraft type and include all manufacturer guidance.
Any approach that requires deviations from the parameters should be addressed in a special briefing.

Minimum Stabilization Heights

The recommended minimum stabilization heights are:

300′ above the airport elevation in VMC for a small airplane in the traffic pattern.
500′ above the airport elevation in VMC.
1,000′ above the airfield elevation in IMC.
For a circling approach, MDA or 500′ above the airport elevation, whichever is lower.

Go-Around for Safety

The objective is to be stabilized before reaching the predetermined minimum stabilization height. If the aircraft is not stabilized at the minimum stabilization height or becomes unstabilized below the minimum stabilization height, a go-around should be initiated.

Personal Minimums Worksheet

Pilot’s Name	Date	Aircraft Make & Model

1: Review Weather Definitions

Category	Ceiling and Visibility
VFR	Above 3,000′ AGL and 5 SM
MVFR	1,000′ to 3,000′ AGL or 3 to 5 SM
IFR	500′ to 1,000′ AGL or 1 to 3 SM
LIFR	Below 500′ AGL or 1 SM

AIM 7-1-7 and National Weather Service (NWS) Definitions

2: Assess Your Flight Experience

Most Recent Training Dates

Flight Review (or Practical Test)
Instrument Proficiency Check

Total Aeronautical Experience

Total Pilot Time
In Make and Model
Actual Instrument
Night Hours

Recent Experience (Last 12 Months)

Pilot Time
In Make and Model
Total Landings
Night Hours
Night Landings
Actual Instrument
Instrument Approaches

3: Establish Your Baseline Levels

Weather Comfort Levels

	VFR	IFR
Ceiling–Day
Ceiling–Night
Visibility–Day
Visibility–Night

Wind and Turbulence Comfort Levels

Surface Wind Speed
Surface Wind Gusts
Crosswind Component

Performance Comfort Levels

Shortest Runway
Highest Density Altitude

4: Adjust for Current Conditions

For the following conditions, adjust your comfort levels by at least the amounts below.

Pilot: Illness, stress, fatigue, emotion, or lack of recent experience
Aircraft: Unfamiliar equipment or less than 100 PIC hours in type
Environment: Contaminated runway, difficult airspace, or unfamiliar surroundings
External Pressures: Passenger pressures, incoming weather, or deadlines

Ceiling	Add at least 500′
Visibility	Add at least 1/2 SM
Wind Speed	Subtract at least 5 knots
Runway Length	Add at least 500′

Suggested Comfort Level Adjustments

5. Stick to the Plan

Do not lower personal minimums for a specific flight. The time to consider adjustments is when you are not under any pressure to fly.

Personal Proficiency Plan Worksheet

Pilot’s Name	Date	Time Frame (Weeks \| Months)

This worksheet will help you develop a plan for maintaining and improving aeronautical skills. Use it to establish a proficiency program that exceeds the regulatory currency requirements.

1: Review Currency Requirements

Flight Review: Within the preceding 24 calendar months.

Passenger Carrying: Three takeoffs and landings as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the last 90 days (to a full stop at night or if in a tailwheel airplane).

IFR Currency: Six instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepting and tracking courses, in the preceding six calendar months.

2: Establish Proficiency Goals

In the specified time frame, I will:

☐ Lower personal minimums
☐ Learn a new piece of equipment
☐ Expand my current levels of comfort
☐ Exceed the minimum currency requirements
☐ Complete a WINGS Phase
☐ Other:

3: Establish Personal Policies

When uncomfortable with my proficiency, I will self-impose the following limitations:

☐ Increase personal minimums
☐ Fly with an instructor or “coach”
☐ Not fly with passengers
☐ Other:

4: Establish Knowledge Objectives

In the specified time frame, I will:

☐ Attend ______ industry seminars
☐ Complete ______ online courses
☐ Review ______ accident case studies
☐ Evaluate my decisions in ______ scenarios
☐ Other:

5: Establish Skill Objectives

In the specified time frame, I will fly and log:

☐ ______ flight hours
☐ ______ dual hours
☐ ______ night hours
☐ ______ cross-country hours
☐ ______ simulated instrument hours
☐ ______ actual instrument hours
☐ ______ instrument approaches
☐ ______ holding patterns
☐ ______ steep turns
☐ ______ stalls
☐ ______ ground reference maneuvers
☐ ______ landings
☐ ______ system malfunctions (simulated)
☐ ______ emergency procedures (simulated)
☐ ______ Other:

6: Establish Procedures

For every training flight, I will:

☐ State the learning goals
☐ Develop a written plan of action
☐ Hold myself accountable for deficiencies
☐ Establish standards of performance in advance
☐ Schedule the next flight before leaving the airport
☐ Other:

7: Establish a Training Budget

The following budget numerically represents my priorities:

☐ $__________ total expenses
☐ $__________ instructor fees
☐ $__________ aircraft operating expenses
☐ $__________ training gear and equipment
☐ $__________ books, videos, and courses
☐ $__________ memberships and subscriptions
☐ $__________ Other:

2

Sunday, January 7, 2024

Flight Review

Introduction

Objectives

Instructor Preparation

Suggested Outline

Lesson Briefing

Risk Management

Resources

Schedule

Equipment

Lesson Debriefing

Completion Standards

Lesson Content

Recent Flight Experience Requirements

Flight Review

Aircraft and Airport Security

Runway Markings

Taxiway Markings

Holding Position Markings

Types of Airport Signs

Visual Glideslope Indicators

Visual Approach Slope Indicator

Precision Approach Path Indicator

Hot Spots

Runway Incursions

Types of Runway Incursions

Runway Incursion Severity

Runway Incursion Statistics

Wrong Runway Departures

Wrong Direction Departures from an Intersection

Best Practices for Avoiding Surface Deviations

The Risk Management Process

Identifying Hazards (Perceive)

Assessing Risk (Process)

Risk Assessment Matrix

Likelihood of an Event

Severity of an Event

Flight Risk Assessment Tools

Mitigating Risk (Perform)

Single-Pilot Resource Management

Use of Resources

Situational Awareness

Best Practices for Maintaining Situational Awareness

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness

Aeronautical Decision-Making

The Decision-Making Process

Operational Pitfalls

The Poor Judgment Chain

Automation Management

Levels of Automation

Using the Appropriate Level of Automation

Active Automation Management

Autopilot Management

Automation Management Errors

Task Management

Best Practices for Task Management

Sterile Cockpit Rule

Checklist Usage

Checklist Accomplishment Methods

General Procedures for Checklists

Use of Commercially or Personally Developed Checklists

Traffic Pattern Elements

Traffic Pattern Operations

Sources of Traffic Pattern Information

Direction of Turns at Nontowered Airports

Straight-in-Approaches

Direction of Turns at Towered Airports

Operations at Satellite Airports

Traffic Pattern Altitudes

Large or Turbine-Powered Airplanes

Observation of Wind Indicators at Nontowered Airports

Visual Approach Slope Indicators

Recommended Traffic Pattern Speeds

The “REACT” Model for Nontowered Airports

Traffic Pattern Entries

Entry Methods when Crossing Midfield

270° Entry (Preferred)

Midfield Entry (Alternative)