Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Introduction

The first step in learning to control the airplane solely by reference to the flight instruments is to transition away from performing the basic flight maneuvers (straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents) by outside visual references to using inside instrument references.

This lesson introduces the fundamental skills of instrument flying: instrument scanning, cross-checking, and interpretation. Practicing these skills strengthens a pilot’s ability to control of the aircraft, maintain spatial orientation, and knowledge of the flight instruments.

Objectives

After this lesson, the learner will be able to:

Describe the instruments used for pitch, bank, and power control.
Perform proper instrument cross-checking techniques.
Interpret and correlate information displayed on the flight instruments.
Perform the basic flight maneuvers solely by reference to the flight instruments.

Teaching Strategy

This is an introductory lesson on instrument flying skills. It is suitable for VFR pilots and applicants for an instrument rating.

VFR Into IMC

VFR pilots must know that when they cannot maintain outside visual references to control the airplane, the situation should be treated as an emergency (refer to the Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC lesson plan).

Oscar Flight Pattern

At the end of the practice session, fly the Oscar flight pattern to review and assess performance. The learner should not be required to memorize the steps.

Tips for Instructors

Break up simulated instrument flying into short sessions to avoid fatigue. Visual flying can be used as a break period.
Offer to exchange the flight controls as the learner takes on and off the view-limiting device.
In later lessons, having the learner reach for the device can be used as a distraction.
Integrate one of the attitude instrument flying methods (not both).

Lesson Briefing

Risk Management

Private Pilot:

Instrument flying hazards, to include failure to maintain VFR, spatial disorientation, loss of control, fatigue, stress, and emergency off-airport landings
Failure to seek assistance or declare an emergency in a deteriorating situation
Collision hazards, to include aircraft, terrain, obstacles, and wires
Distractions, loss of situational awareness, or improper task management

Instrument Pilot:

Situations that can affect physiology and degrade instrument cross-check
Spatial disorientation and optical illusions
Flying unfamiliar airplanes or operating with unfamiliar flight display systems and avionics

Resources

Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15):
- Chapter 6, Section 1: Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using Analog Instrumentation
- Chapter 6, Section 2: Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using an Electronic Flight Display
- Chapter 7, Section 1: Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using Analog Instrumentation
- Chapter 7, Section 2: Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using an Electronic Flight Display

Schedule

Lesson Briefing (0:20)
Demonstrations and Practice (0:25)
Lesson Debriefing (0:10)

Equipment

Whiteboard, markers, and erasers
Airplane models
Airplane checklists
Headsets and flight gear
View-limiting device

Lesson Debriefing

This lesson concludes with a collaborative assessment and review of the main points and risk management items.

Additionally, the instructor ensures:

All of the learner’s questions are resolved.
The learner is made aware of his or her performance and progress.

Completion Standards

This lesson is complete when the lesson objectives are met and the learner’s knowledge, risk management, and skills are determined to be adequate for the stage of training. Ultimately, the learner must meet or exceed the Airman Certification Standards.

Lesson Content

Attitude Instrument Flying

Attitude instrument flying means establishing the airplane’s attitude using the flight instruments rather than outside visual references.

Principles of Attitude Instrument Flying

Primary Rule: Attitude + Power + Configuration = Performance

Pilots should learn what combinations of power, configuration, and attitude are necessary to attain their airplane’s desired performance. This reduces workload.
Attitude changes should be held momentarily and then evaluated for performance. This prevents “chasing the needles.”

Fundamental Skills of Attitude Instrument Flying

Instrument Cross-Check (Scan): A continuous, systematic observation of the flight instruments. The preferred technique varies by individual pilot.

The purpose of the instrument scan is to:

Help prevent spatial-disorientation and unusual attitudes.
Provide early recognition of a failed instrument.

Instrument Interpretation: Combining all observations from the cross-check to determine the aircraft’s attitude and performance.

Aircraft Control: Applying the control responses necessary to fly the airplane.

The Four-Step Process Used to Change Attitude

1. Establish: Set the aircraft’s attitude (pitch and bank) and power to establish the desired performance.

Pitch and bank changes are made in reference to the attitude indicator.
Power changes should be set on the tachometer and, if equipped, the manifold pressure gauge.

To ease workload, pilots should become familiar with the approximate pitch and power settings required for each fundamental maneuver.

2. Trim: When the aircraft is trimmed properly, the pilot can relax pressure on the pitch control and momentarily divert attention to other tasks.

Trimming the aircraft is very important, and poor trim is one of the most common errors instructors note in instrument students.

3. Cross-Check: Verify the aircraft’s performance by scanning the flight and engine instruments.

4. Adjust: Adjustments for any deviations noted during the cross-check should be made in small increments.

Adjusting for Deviations

Pitch: The attitude indicator should be used to make corrections for altitude deviations. A rule of thumb is to establish a change rate of twice the altitude deviation, not to exceed 500 FPM.

Bank: The attitude indicator should be used to make corrections for heading deviations. A rule of thumb is to enter a bank angle equal to the number of degrees from the desired heading, not to exceed a standard-rate turn.

Power: Changes in power should be made with reference to the engine instruments and cross-checked on the flight instruments (airspeed, vertical speed, and altimeter). Pilots learn to approximate the required change in power through experience in the aircraft.

Note: Most instrument flying deviations are small. Small deviations require small adjustments.

Attitude Instrument Flying Methods

There are two basic methods for learning to control the aircraft by reference to instruments: control and performance and primary and supporting. The methods differ in their reliance on the attitude indicator and interpretation of the other instruments.

	Control and Performance	Primary and Supporting
Intended Applications	High-performance and training aircraft	Training aircraft
Instrument Groupings	Control, Performance, Navigation	Pitch, Bank, Power
Instruments Emphasized	Attitude indicator and power instruments	Primary instruments for pitch, bank, and power
Required Knowledge	The pitch and power settings to achieve the desired performance	Which instruments give the most pertinent information for any particular maneuver
Steps for Changing Attitude	Establish, Trim, Cross-Check, Adjust	Establish, Trim, Cross-Check, Adjust
Instruments for Changing Attitude	Attitude indicator and engine instruments	Attitude indicator and engine instruments

Comparison of Attitude Instrument Flying Methods

Control and Performance Method

The control and performance method’s basic concept is to set a known combination of engine power and attitude (controls) to achieve the desired flight path and airspeed (performance).

Consistent Setup = Predictable Results

Scanning Technique: The attitude indicator is the center of focus; therefore, the selected radial or T-scan is recommended.

Instrument Groups:

Control: The attitude indicator and power instruments (tachometer and manifold pressure, if equipped).
Performance: The altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator. Other instruments are the heading indicator and the slip/skid indicator.
Navigation: Ground-based or space-based navigation systems.

Basic Concept:

All attitude changes should be made in reference to the control instruments (attitude and power).
Once established, make note of the power settings and flight instrument indications.

Control and Performance Method — Control and Performance Concept

Primary and Supporting Method

The primary and supporting method’s basic concept is to understand how each component of the aircraft’s attitude (pitch, bank, and power) is most effectively monitored for performance. Less emphasis is placed on the attitude indicator.

Scanning Technique: The eyes should spend the most time on the primary instruments.

Instrument Groups:

Primary: The instrument that displays the most pertinent information at any given time. There are three primary instruments for every maneuver: one for pitch, one for bank, and one for power.
Supporting: The instruments that back up the primary instruments. There may be more than one supporting instrument for pitch, bank, and power.

Basic Concept:

When transitioning between maneuvers, use the attitude indicator and power instruments (tachometer and manifold pressure, if equipped).
Once established, begin scanning with proper emphasis on the primary and supporting instruments.

Primary and Supporting Method — Primary and Supporting Concept

Instrument Scanning Techniques

Inverted V Scan

Starting Position: Attitude indicator (home base)
Eye Movements:
- From the attitude indicator to the turn coordinator and back
- From the attitude indicator to the vertical speed indicator and back
Best Uses: Turns

T-Scan

Starting Position: Attitude indicator (home base)
Eye Movements:
- From the attitude indicator to the airspeed indicator and back
- From the attitude indicator to the heading indicator and back
- From the attitude indicator to the altimeter and back
Best Uses: Straight-and-level flight

Selected Radial Scan (Hub and Spoke)

Starting Position: Attitude indicator (home base)
Eye Movements:
- From the attitude indicator (hub) to an instrument (spoke) and back
- The eyes are on the attitude indicator 80–90% percent of the time
Best Uses: After major attitude changes, when flying in turbulence, and for precise maneuvering

Rectangular Scan

Starting Position: Attitude indicator
Eye Movements: From one instrument to the next in a box pattern (either direction)
Best Uses: To rapidly scan all instruments for trends or instrument errors

Instrument Scanning Errors

Fixation: Staring at a single instrument, which often leads to an unnoticed change in other instruments.

Common reasons for fixation:

Uncertainty or confusion with an instrument indication.
Attempting to maintain or set an unnecessarily tight tolerance on a digital instrument.

Omission: Neglecting to include an instrument in the cross-check.

Common reasons for omission:

An instrument that is installed in an awkward position, such as a stand-by instrument on the lower panel.
Only scanning the primary flight display (PFD) due to its high reliability and ease of use.

Emphasis: Placing more attention on a single instrument instead of a combination of instruments.

Common reasons for emphasis:

Elevating the importance of one instrument above another.
Relying on the instrument that is most readily understood, even when it provides inadequate information.

Straight-and-Level Flight by Reference to Instruments

Procedure

Note: These procedures are applicable to either instrument flying method (primary and supporting, or control and performance). Include the concepts of the preferred method when applicable.

1. Establish:

Adjust the aircraft’s attitude and power setting to establish level flight at a constant airspeed.
Altitude is to be maintained with zero bank and no yaw (constant heading).

2. Trim:

Relieve all flight control pressures after a level attitude has been attained.
The airplane should be able to maintain straight-and-level flight momentarily without any control inputs.

3. Cross-Check:

Begin scanning with your preferred technique.
Make a conscious effort to avoid scanning errors (fixation, omission, and emphasis).

4. Adjust:

Make smooth and small corrections with positive control pressure.
Avoid making large corrections that result in rapid attitude changes.
Know and apply rules of thumb to correct for deviations in pitch and bank.

Common Errors for Straight-and-Level Flight

Faulty trim procedure
Insufficient cross-checking and interpretation of the instruments
Fixation, omission, and emphasis errors during instrument cross-check
Making excessive attitude corrections (“chasing the instruments”)

Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents by Reference to Instruments

Procedure

Note: These procedures are applicable to either instrument flying method (primary and supporting, or control and performance). Include the concepts of the preferred method when applicable.

Constant Airspeed Climbs:

Raise the miniature aircraft to the nose-high indication for the predetermined climb speed. The attitude depends on the airplane’s performance.
1. To climb at the current speed, set climb power simultaneously with the pitch change.
2. To climb at a slower speed, set climb power after the pitch change is established and the airspeed decreases to the climb speed.
Once established, trim to relieve all flight control pressures.
Scan the instruments with your preferred technique.
Use smooth, small pitch adjustments to correct for airspeed deviations.

Constant Airspeed Descents:

To descend at a slower speed, reduce power and slow to the descent speed while maintaining straight-and-level flight.
Simultaneously lower the nose and reduce power to begin the descent.
Once established, trim to relieve all flight control pressures.
Scan the instruments with your preferred technique.
Use smooth, small pitch adjustments to correct for airspeed deviations.

Level-Off Procedure:

Lead the level-off from the desired altitude by 10% of the vertical velocity.
1. Simultaneously adjust power and pitch to return to level flight.
2. To level-off from a climb at a faster speed, pitch to return to level flight, then reduce power after reaching the cruise speed.
Trim, cross-check, and make adjustments to establish straight-and-level flight.

Vertical S’s (Practice Flight Pattern)

Common Errors for Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents

Overcontrolling pitch on climb entry
Failure to trim off new control pressures
Failure to learn and use proper power settings
“Chasing” the vertical speed indicator
Failure to note the rate of climb or descent to determine the lead for level-offs
“Ballooning” (allowing the nose to pitch up) on level-offs from descents

Turns to Headings by Reference to Instruments

Standard-Rate Turns

A standard-rate turn is a change in heading at a rate of 3° per second. The bank angle required to maintain a standard-rate turn varies with the true airspeed (TAS).

The bank angle for a standard-rate turn can be approximated with the following formula.

Bank Angle for Standard-Rate Turn = (KTAS ÷ 10) + 5

Procedure

Note: These procedures are applicable to either instrument flying method (primary and supporting, or control and performance). Include the concepts of the preferred method when applicable.

1. Establish:

Use the attitude indicator to establish the bank angle for a standard rate turn.
Verify a standard rate turn on the turn coordinator (or turn-and-bank indicator).
Apply aft control pressure on the pitch control to stop any altitude loss.

2. Trim:

Relieve all flight control pressures after a level turn has been attained.

3. Cross-Check:

Begin scanning with your preferred technique.
Make a conscious effort to avoid scanning errors (fixation, omission, and emphasis).

4. Adjust:

Make smooth and small corrections with positive control pressure.
Use the same procedures as in level flight to control the airspeed and altitude once the maneuver is established.

Rollout Procedure:

To stop the turn on the desired heading, lead the rollout by about one-half the bank angle.
Strive for the same rate of rollout used to roll into the turn.
Apply forward control pressure on the pitch control to stop any ballooning (altitude gain).
If trim was used in the turn, retrim to relieve all flight control pressures.

S-Turns Across a Heading (Practice Flight Pattern)

Common Errors for Turns to Headings

Altitude Errors Resulting From:

Preoccupation with bank control during turn entry and rollout
Erratic rates of bank change on entry and rollout
Failure to make pitch adjustments as the vertical lift component changes, resulting in a loss of altitude on entry and a gain of altitude on rollout
Failure to trim during turn entry and following rollout (if the turn is prolonged)

Heading Errors Resulting From:

Overcontrolling during turn entry and rollout
Failure to use the proper degree of bank for the amount of heading change desired
Failure to check the ball/brick when interpreting bank information
Failure to remember the heading to which the aircraft is being turned due to preoccupation or rushing the maneuver

Timed Turns and Compass Turns [IFR]

Timed turns and compass turns are practiced using full-panel and partial-panel procedures to develop the learner’s ability to make accurate turns to headings without the use of the directional gyro.

Primary and Supporting Instruments

The attitude indicator, if available, is used to establish the approximate bank angle when beginning a turn. Once the turn is established, the turn coordinator becomes the primary instrument for bank control, the altimeter for pitch control, and the airspeed indicator for power control.

Procedure for Timed Turns

Determine the amount of time it will take to turn to the specified heading at a rate of 3° per second (standard rate turn).
Begin timing at the point where the airplane begins to roll into a bank.
Begin the rollout once the time has elapsed at the same rate used during the roll-in.

Turn	Time
30°	10 Seconds
90°	30 Seconds
180°	60 Seconds
360°	120 Seconds

Examples of Timed Turns at a Standard Rate (3° Per Second)

Example: A heading change of 180° takes 60 seconds using a standard rate turn. Begin the rollout after 60 seconds.

Procedure for Compass Turns

Considerations:

The compass tends to lead on northerly headings and lag on southerly headings. The amount the compass leads or lags is affected by the degree of latitude.
Account for the amount of time it takes to roll out of the turn. Consider using the 1/2 bank angle rule of thumb.
No correction is needed when turning to an east or west heading.

Compass Turns to the North

Rule of Thumb: Stop the turn 15° plus half of the latitude before reaching the desired heading.

Example: At 30° of latitude in the Northern Hemisphere, roll out of a right turn to the north (360°) when the compass indicates a heading of approximately 330° (15° + 15° = 30°).

Compass Turns to the South

Rule of Thumb: Stop the turn 15° plus half of the latitude after passing the desired heading.

Example: At 30° of latitude in the Northern Hemisphere, roll out of a right turn to the south (180°) when the compass indicates a heading of approximately 210° (15° + 15° = 30°).

Oscar Flight Pattern

The Oscar pattern is an instrument flying exercise that combines standard-rate turns with constant airspeed climbs and descents.

The objective of the Oscar pattern is to:

Develop instrument scanning techniques
Build a foundation of skills that will be used in IFR procedures
Prepare the learner to operate in a high-workload environment

Procedure

Pre-Maneuver Checks:

Clear the area
Heading established and noted
Altitude established
Position near a suitable emergency landing area
Set power and aircraft configuration:
- Do not exceed VA or VO

During the Maneuver:

Airspeed remains constant (power is adjustable)
All turns are 360° and made at standard-rate
All climbs and descents are made at 500 FPM
Each period of straight-and-level flight should last 30 seconds (use a timer)

Variations for Added Complexity:

Perform a flow check and checklist for each climb, descent, and level-off
Perform the maneuver with a partial panel or using the standby instruments
Brief an instrument approach

Airman Certification Standards for Basic Instrument Maneuvers

References: FAA-S-ACS-6, FAA-S-ACS-7

Standards	Airspeed	Altitude	Bank	Heading
PVT	±10 KIAS	±200′	–	±20°
INST	±10 KIAS	±100′	±5°	±10°

Summary of Skill Standards for Airman Certification

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Sunday, January 7, 2024