Spin Recovery

Spin Recovery -

For a spin - an airplane must be stalled
Both wings are stalled, one more than the other  (aggrated spin/sceptient spin)
CFI need to be a spin
spin endorsement

Preflight for SPIN
Utility category
No lose articles in aircraft


Spin Recovery
-------------

P A R E

Power - idle
Alearon - Level (neutral)
Rudder - opposit spin
Elevator - Down

Flight Service

Weather Briefing  (lockhee Martin Flight Services

1-800-wx-brief  / 1800 -992-7433

Cross-Country Flight KTMB-KFMY-KAPF-KTMB


Outlook Briefing
Standard Briefing
Abbreviated

9:30 departed  1430z
Departing Airports: KTMB
Airport: cessna 172 N99WW


Route Summary
Flight Adviseries
TFRs
Adverse Conditons
NOTAMS


Synosis - Prog Chart

surfice prog chart





AVNWX.com

Aviation Acronyms and Mnemonics.

AFX  FAA Flight test


IFR required equipment: GRAB CARD
or DECARAT

Generator
Radios
Attitude indicator
Ball
Clock
Adjustable altimeter
Rate of turn indicator
Directional gyro


Directional gyro
Electric source
Clock
Attitude indicator
Radios
Adjustable altimeter
Turn and slip coordinator








Flight Clearance: CRAFTS
Clearance
Routing
Altitude
Frequency
Transponder
Special



IFR mandatory reports: FAME Performance

Fixes: arriving or leaving
Altitude changes
Missed approach
Equipment: loss or problems
Performance: poor climb/descend, TAS change




Weather briefing: SACrED WiNd
Synopsis
Adverse conditions
Current weather
Enroute forecast
Destination terminal forecast
Winds aloft
Notams

Weather charts: CoPS WARS
Constant pressure
Prognostic
Surface analysis
Weather depiction
Area forecast (FA)
Radar summary (SD)
Severe weather outlook (AC)





Day VFR required equipment:  TOMATO FLAMES

Tachometer
Oil pressure
Manifold pressure
Altimeter
Temperature sensor (liquid-cooled)
Oil temperature (air cooled)
Fuel gauge
Landing gear position
Airspeed indicator
Magnetic compass
ELT
Seat belts

How to figure out TAS - True Air Speed

Types of Air-Speeds

1. Indicated Airspeed - Read directly on the Airspeed Indicator instrument
2. Calibrated Airspeed - Airspeed corrected for installation and instrument error
3. True Airspeed - Calibrated Airspeed corrected for variation of Temperature and pressure  and is used for flight planning purposes

White Arc 
 - Flap operating range of aircraft
- Vso top of arc velocity stall in landing configuration
- Vs1 - flaps up , stalling speed in a clean configuration
-   Vse bottom of arc maximum speed flaps extended

Green Arc
- normal operating of aircraft
- bottom of arc VN0 -  Maximum speed - normal operation

Yellow Arc
caution range

Red Line 

You can use

1. Use the POH
2. E6B
3. Use Airspeed Indication in the aircraft 

To get the True airspeed directly from the Airspeed Speed Indicator,

you need to get

1. The outside air temperature  Devtron Outside Air Temperature/Clock   
2. The pressure Altitude  - Set Barometric pressure to 29.92 and read the pressure altitude directly from the scale
3.  Adjust the knob so the Pressure Altitude matches the Outside Air Temperature
4. Read the true airspeed directly from the outer number of the white scale on the Airspeed Indicator

Outside Air Temperature 

Set Standard Pressure 29.92 - and Read Pressure Altitude directly from the Barometer gague

Adjust Knob at the bottom of the Gauge so that the Pressure Altitude 6600
matches the outside Temperature of 29.92   

Read the Outside scale directly to get the True Airspeed

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd1oCqzJZPM

How To Find Calibrated Airspeed CAS - E6B  (instrument exam question)

What CAS must be used to maintain the filed TAS  at the flight plan altitude if the outside air temperature is + 8 Degrees Centigrade  anerwer 157

So you have to get 3 things to calculate Calibrated Air Speed
1. Cursing Altitude   = 8,000 feet   (from Flight Plan)
2. True Air Speed  = from Flight plan 180Knots
3. Outside Air Temperature - Given in question  +8 deg C

line up the pressure altitude and temperature Zero

Now rotate and set up 8000 feet pressure altitude at the 0 deg C mark

now set the +8 degree

After align Altitude  8000feet to True Air Temperature -8 deg , you will set your true airspeed  which is 180 knots

It gives you 157 Calibrated Airspeed!

aviation

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Aerodynamics
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Performance
Limitations
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Navigation
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Aeronautical Charts
Flight Planning


Communications
Radio Communications & Procedures


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Emergency & Abnormal Procedures
Weather
Aircraft Systems


Air Traffic Control
National Airspace System
ATC Facilities
ATC System Design & Equipment
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Avionics & Instrumentation
Airport Charts

Touch and Goes

Touch and Go - Pattern work

Lose Airspeed and Altitude

1. Turing Left Crosswind for Runway 29 
1. Climbing turning at 800 AGL
2. Trim
2. Turing Left Downwind -   Level off 1200AGL  TPA Traffic Pattern Altitude Trim   GUMP Check  Abeam #29  
1. 10 deg Flaps
2. Reduce Speed 1600 RPM 
3. Pitch for 90Knots
4. Decent at 500' FPM 
3. Turing Left/Right Base  (45 degree of Runway #)
1. 20 Deg Flaps
2. Pitch for 80Knots
3. Continue 500 
4. Turing Final  (Abean edge of Runway width turm)
1. 15 deg Flaps
2. Pitch for 70Knots
3. Look at VASI   (Too High Too Low) Glideslope
4. Power to idle over runway # 

https://atpflightschool.com/students/downloads/172ManeuversGuide.pdf

Hanscom Tower, Cessna 345GY Turing Left Crosswind for Runway 29

GUMP -
Gas - Both
Undercarrage
Mixture Rich
Power 1500rmp

IFR Flight

Sources of Flight Planning Information 

The following resources are available for a pilot planning a flight conducted under IFR.
National Aeronautical Navigation Products (AeroNav Products) Group publications:
• IFR en route charts
• Area charts
• United States Terminal Procedures Publications (TPP)

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications:
• Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
• Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
• Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) for flight planning in the National Airspace System (NAS)

Pilots should also consult the Pilot’s Operating Handbook/ Airplane Flight Manual (POH/AFM) for flight planning information pertinent to the aircraft to be flown. A review of the contents of all the listed publications helps determine which material should be referenced for each flight.  As a pilot becomes more familiar with these publications, the flight planning process becomes quicker and easier.

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) 
The AIM provides the aviation community with basic flight information and air traffic control (ATC) procedures used in the United States NAS. An international version called the Aeronautical Information Publication contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports used by the international community.

Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
The A/FD contains information on airports, communications, and navigation aids (NAVAIDs) pertinent to IFR flight. It also includes very-high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR) receiver checkpoints, flight service station (FSS), weather service telephone numbers, and air route traffic control center (ARTCC) frequencies. Various special notices essential to flight are also included, such as landand-hold-short operations (LAHSO) data, the civil use of military fields, continuous power facilities, and special flight procedures.

In the major terminal and en route environments, preferred routes have been established to guide pilots in planning their routes of flight, to minimize route changes, and to aid in the orderly management of air traffic using the Federal airways. The A/FD lists both high and low altitude preferred routes.


Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP)
The NTAP is a publication containing current Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) that are essential to the safety of flight, as well as supplemental data affecting the other operational publications listed. It also includes current Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs, which are regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions to flight or to amend charts or published instrument approach procedures (IAPs).

POH/AFM
The POH/AFM contain operating limitations, performance, normal and emergency procedures, and a variety of other operational information for the respective aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers have done considerable testing to gather and substantiate the information in the aircraft manual. Pilots should refer to it for information relevant to a proposed flight.

IFR Flight Plan 
As specified in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, no person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person has filed an IFR flight plan. Flight plans may be submitted to the nearest FSS or air traffic control tower (ATCT) either in person, by telephone (1-800-WX-BRIEF), by computer (using the direct user access terminal system (DUATS)), or by radio if no other means are available. Pilots should file IFR flight plans at least 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure to preclude possible delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC. The AIM provides guidance for completing and filing FAA Form 7233-1, Flight Plan. These forms are available at flight service stations (FSSs) and are generally found in flight planning rooms at airport terminal buildings. [Figure 10-1]

Filing in Flight 
IFR flight plans may be filed from the air under various conditions, including:
1. A flight outside controlled airspace before proceeding into IFR conditions in controlled airspace.
2. A visual flight rules (VFR) flight expecting IFR weather conditions en route in controlled airspace.

In either of these situations, the flight plan may be filed with the nearest FSS or directly with the ARTCC. A pilot who files with the FSS submits the information normally entered during preflight filing, except for “point of departure,” together with present position and altitude. FSS then relays this information to the ARTCC. The ARTCC then clears the pilot from present position or from a specified navigation fix.

A pilot who files directly with the ARTCC reports present position and altitude, and submits only the flight plan information normally relayed from the FSS to the ARTCC. Be aware that traffic saturation frequently prevents ARTCC personnel from accepting flight plans by radio. In such cases, a pilot is advised to contact the nearest FSS to file the flight plan.

Cancelling IFR Flight Plans 
An IFR flight plan may be cancelled any time a pilot is operating in VFR conditions outside Class A airspace by stating “cancel my IFR flight plan” to the controller or air-toground station. After cancelling an IFR flight plan, the pilot should change to the appropriate air-to-ground frequency, transponder code as directed, and VFR altitude/flight level.

ATC separation and information services (including radar services, where applicable) are discontinued when an IFR flight plan is cancelled. If VFR radar advisory service is desired, a pilot must specifically request it. Be aware that other procedures may apply when cancelling an IFR flight plan within areas such as Class C or Class B airspace.

When operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport with an operating control tower, a flight plan is cancelled automatically upon landing. If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport without an operating control tower, the pilot is responsible for cancelling the flight plan. This can be done by telephone after landing if there is no operating FSS or other means of direct communications with ATC. When there is no FSS or air-to-ground communications are not possible below a certain altitude, a pilot may cancel an IFR flight plan while still airborne and able to communicate with ATC by radio. If using this procedure, be certain the remainder of the flight can be conducted under VFR. It is essential that IFR flight plans be cancelled expeditiously. This allows other IFR traffic to utilize the airspace.


Clearances 
An ATC clearance allows an aircraft to proceed under specified traffic conditions within controlled airspace for the purpose of providing separation between known aircraft. A major contributor to runway incursions is lack of communication with ATC and not understanding the instructions that they give. The primary way the pilot and ATC communicate is by voice. The safety and efficiency of taxi operations at airports with operating control towers depend on this communication loop. ATC uses standard phraseology and require readbacks and other responses from the pilot in order to verify that clearances and instructions are understood. In order to complete the communication loop, the controllers must also clearly understand the pilot’s readback and other responses. Pilots can help enhance the controller’s understanding by responding appropriately and using standard phraseology. Regulatory requirements, the AIM, approved flight training programs, and operational manuals provide information for pilots on standard ATC phraseology and communications requirements

Examples

A flight filed for a short distance at a relatively low altitude in an area of low traffic density might receive a clearance as follows:

“Cessna 1230 Alpha, cleared to Doeville airport direct, cruise 5,000.” 

The term “cruise” in this clearance means a pilot is authorized to fly at any altitude from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including 5,000 feet and may level off at any altitude within this block of airspace. A climb or descent within the block may be made at the pilot’s discretion. However, once a pilot reports leaving an altitude within the block, the pilot may not return to that altitude without further ATC clearance

When ATC issues a cruise clearance in conjunction with an unpublished route, an appropriate crossing altitude is specified to ensure terrain clearance until the aircraft reaches a fix, point, or route where the altitude information is available. The crossing altitude ensures IFR obstruction clearance to the point at which the aircraft enters a segment of a published route or IAP.

Once a flight plan is filed, ATC issues the clearance with appropriate instructions, such as the following:

 “Cessna 1230 Alpha is cleared to Skyline airport via the Crossville 055 radial, Victor 18, maintain 5,000. Clearance void if not off by 1330.” 

Or a more complex clearance, such as:

“Cessna 1230 Alpha is cleared to Wichita Midcontinent airport via Victor 77, left turn after takeoff, proceed direct to the Oklahoma City VORTAC. Hold west on the Oklahoma City 277 radial, climb to 5,000 in holding pattern before proceeding on course. Maintain 5,000 to CASHION intersection. Climb to and maintain 7,000. Departure control frequency will be 121.05, Squawk 0412.”

C    Wichita Midcontinent airport via Victor 77,
R     left turn after takeoff, proceed direct to the Oklahoma City VORTAC. Hold west on the                   Oklahoma City 277 radial,
A    climb to 5,000 in holding pattern before proceeding on course. Maintain 5,000 to CASHION                intersection. Climb to and maintain 7,000.
F   121.05
T   0412


Clearance delivery may issue the following “abbreviated clearance” which includes a departure procedure (DP): 

“Cessna 1230 Alpha, cleared to La Guardia as filed, RINGOES 8 departure Phillipsburg transition, maintain 8,000. Departure control frequency will be 120.4, Squawk 0700.” 

This clearance may be readily copied in shorthand as follows: “CAF RNGO8 PSB M80 DPC 120.4 SQ 0700.”

The information contained in this DP clearance is abbreviated using clearance shorthand (see appendix 1). The pilot should know the locations of the specified navigation facilities, together with the route and point-to-point time, before accepting the clearance.

The DP enables a pilot to study and understand the details of a departure before filing an IFR flight plan. It provides the information necessary to set up communication and navigation equipment and be ready for departure before requesting an IFR clearance.

Once the clearance is accepted, a pilot is required to comply with ATC instructions. A clearance different from that issued may be requested if the pilot considers another course of action more practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or other considerations make acceptance of the clearance inadvisable.

A pilot should also request clarification or amendment, as appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully understood or considered unacceptable for safety of flight. The pilot is responsible for requesting an amended clearance if ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation or would place the aircraft in jeopardy.

Clearance Separations

ATC provides the pilot on an IFR clearance with separation from other IFR traffic. This separation is provided:

1. Vertically—by assignment of different altitudes.
2. Longitudinally—by controlling time separation between aircraft on the same course.
3. Laterally—by assignment of different flightpaths.
4. By radar—including all of the above.

ATC does not provide separation for an aircraft operating:
1. Outside controlled airspace.
2. On an IFR clearance:
    a) With “VFR-On-Top” authorized instead of a specific assigned altitude.
    b) Specifying climb or descent in “VFR conditions.”
    c) At any time in VFR conditions, since uncontrolled VFR flights may be operating in the same    airspace

In addition to heading and altitude assignments, ATC occasionally issues speed adjustments to maintain the required separations.
For example:

“Cessna 30 Alpha, slow to 100 knots.” 

A pilot who receives speed adjustments is expected to maintain that speed plus or minus 10 knots. If for any reason the pilot is not able to accept a speed restriction, the pilot should advise ATC.

At times, ATC may also employ visual separation techniques to keep aircraft safely separated. A pilot who obtains visual contact with another aircraft may be asked to maintain visual separation or to follow the aircraft.
For example:

“Cessna 30 Alpha, maintain visual separation with that traffic, climb and maintain 7,000.” 

The pilot’s acceptance of instructions to maintain visual separation or to follow another aircraft is an acknowledgment that the aircraft is maneuvered as necessary to maintain safe separation. It is also an acknowledgment that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake turbulence avoidance.

In the absence of radar contact, ATC relies on position reports to assist in maintaining proper separation. Using the data transmitted by the pilot, the controller follows the progress of each flight. ATC must correlate the pilots’ reports to provide separation; therefore, the accuracy of each pilot’s report can affect the progress and safety of every other aircraft operating in the area on an IFR flight plan.

Departure Procedures (DPs) 
Instrument departure procedures are preplanned IFR procedures that provide obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure and provide the pilot with a way to depart the airport and transition to the en route structure safely. Pilots operating under 14 CFR part 91 are strongly encouraged to file and fly a DP when one is available. [Figure 10-2]

There are two types of DPs: Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), printed either textually or graphically, and Standard Instrument Departures (SID), always printed graphically. All DPs, either textual or graphic, may be designed using either conventional or area navigation (RNAV) criteria. RNAV procedures have RNAV printed in the title (e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE (RNAV)).

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) 
ODPs provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous route from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance and may be flown without ATC clearance unless an alternate departure procedure (SID or radar vector) has been specifically assigned by ATC. Graphic ODPs have (OBSTACLE) printed in the procedure title (e.g., GEYSR THREE DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), CROWN ONE DEPARTURE (RNAV)(OBSTACLE)).

Standard Instrument Departures 
SIDs are ATC procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic form to provide obstruction clearance and a transition from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. SIDs are primarily designed for system enhancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload. ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID.

ODPs are found in section C of each booklet published regionally by the AeroNav Products, TPP, along with “IFR Take-off Minimums” while SIDs are collocated with the approach procedures for the applicable airport. Additional information on the development of DPs can be found in paragraph 5-2-7 of the AIM. However, the following points are important to remember.

1. The pilot of IFR aircraft operating from locations where DP procedures are effective may expect an ATC clearance containing a DP. The use of a DP requires pilot possession of at least the textual description of the approved DP.

2. If a pilot does not possess a preprinted DP or for any other reason does not wish to use a DP, he or she is expected to advise ATC. Notification may be accomplished by filing “NO DP” in the remarks section of the filed flight plan or by advising ATC.

3. If a DP is accepted in a clearance, a pilot must comply with it.

Radar-Controlled Departures 
On IFR departures from airports in congested areas, a pilot normally receives navigational guidance from departure control by radar vector. When a departure is to be vectored immediately following takeoff, the pilot is advised before takeoff of the initial heading to be flown. This information is vital in the event of a loss of two-way radio communications during departure.

The radar departure is normally simple. Following takeoff, contact departure control on the assigned frequency when advised to do so by the control tower. At this time, departure control verifies radar contact and gives headings, altitude, and climb instructions to move an aircraft quickly and safely out of the terminal area. A pilot is expected to fly the assigned headings and altitudes until informed by the controller of the aircraft’s position with respect to the route given in the clearance, whom to contact next, and to “resume own navigation.”

Departure control provides vectors to either a navigation facility, or an en route position appropriate to the departure clearance, or transfer to another controller with further radar surveillance capabilities. [Figure 10-2]

A radar controlled departure does not relieve the pilot of responsibilities as pilot-in-command. Be prepared before takeoff to conduct navigation according to the ATC clearance with navigation receivers checked and properly tuned. While under radar control, monitor instruments to ensure continuous orientation to the route specified in the clearance and record the time over designated checkpoints.

VFR Flight Maneuvers

VFR Flight Maneuvers

1. Slow Flight 
2. Power On Stall    - Departure stall
3. Power Off stall
4. Steep Turn
5. Turn around about a Point 
6. S Turm
7. Spin Recovery
8. Unusually Altitude
9. Short Field Takeoff
10. Short Field Landing
11. Soft Field Takeoff
12. Soft Field Landing
13. Normal Takeoff
14. Normal Landing 
15. No Flap Landing 
16. Taxi - with Head/Tail Winds
17. Emergency - Engine Failure 
18. Cross Country

Taxi with Head/Tail Winds

Slow Flight 
1.Perform two 90º clearing turns
2. *1500 RPM (maintain altitude)
3. Landing configuration flow
4. Maintain altitude - slow to just above a stall
5. Power as required to maintain airspeed
6. Accomplish level flight, climbs, turns, and descents as required (ATP - max 30° bank)
7. Recover – full power/maintain altitude/reduce flaps
8. Above VX, reduce flaps to 0°
9. Cruise checklist

Power Off Stall

Clearing Turn
1. Perform two 90° clearing turns
2. *1500 RPM (maintain altitude)
3. Landing configuration flow
4. Stabilized descent at 65 KIAS
5. Throttle idle(Slowly)
6. Wings level or up to 20° bank as assigned
7. Pitch to maintain altitude (Slowly)
8. At stall/buffet (as required) recover – reduce AOA - full power
9. Reduce flaps to 10°
10. Accelerate to 60 KIAS (VX), positive rate, reduce flaps to 0°
11. Cruise checklist

VSI to show positive


Power On Stall
1. Perform two 90° clearing turns
2. *1500 RPM (maintain altitude)
3. Clean configuration
4. At 60 KIAS, simultaneously increase pitch (Slowly) and apply full power
5. Slowly increase pitch to induce stall/buffet (approx 15°)
6. At stall/buffet (as required) recover – reduce AOA - full power
7. Cruise checklist

Steep Turm
1.Perform two 90º clearing turns
2. 90 KIAS (*2000 RPM) maintain altitude
3. Cruise configuration flow
4. Roll into 45˚ bank (private, at least 50˚ for commercial)
5. Maintain altitude and airspeed (+ back pressure, + approx. 1-200 RPM)
6. Roll out ½ bank angle prior to entry heading
7. Clear traffic and roll in opposite direction
8. Roll out ½ bank angle prior to entry heading
9. Cruise checklist 

Soft Field Takeoff
1. Flaps 10°
2. Roll onto runway with full aft yoke – minimum braking – do not stop
3. Smoothly apply full power
4. As nose lifts off, ease back pressure (nose wheel must remain off the ground)
5. Lift off at lowest possible airspeed – remain in ground effect
6. In ground effect – accelerate to 60 KIAS (VX) – begin climb
7. Accelerate to 79 KIAS (VY)
8. At safe altitude, retract flaps
9. After takeoff checklist


1. Complete the “Approach Checklist” before entering the airport area; devote full attention to aircraft control and traffic avoidance.
2. Slow to 85 KIAS prior to entering downwind or traffic pattern.
3. Enter the traffic pattern at published TPA (typically 1000' AGL).
4. Complete the “Before Landing Checklist” when established on downwind.
5. When abeam touchdown point, on extended base, or on extended final (when ready to descend out of pattern altitude): Reduce power to approx. 1500 RPM and select flaps 10˚.
6. Descend out of TPA at 75 KIAS.
7. Select flaps 20˚ and slow to 70 KIAS on base leg.
8. Select flaps 30˚ and slow to 65 KIAS on final when landing is assured.
9. Fly the airplane onto the ground, slowly transferring the weight from the wings to the main landing gear.
10. Touch down on intended touchdown point at minimum speed with a nose-high pitch attitude.
11. Keep the nosewheel off the ground as airplane slows by increasing elevator pressure.
12. Prevent nosewheel from rapidly falling by maintaining aft elevator pressure.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMhrypQfTfQ

Spin Recovery Training
Aggravate stall - one wing stall more that anther.
To setup the spin -  Do a Power On Turning Stall with  (full rudder and full back pressure on yoke)

Preparation 
1. Aircraft in UTILITY Category
3. Weight and Balance
2. No loose item

Spin Recovery - Think "P A R E"
Power -  Back
Alerian - Neutral
Rudder - Opposite The spin
Elevator - Down

Power on Turning Stall
CFI - must be current and spin certify
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52tPNkBcfmg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4dSrjVR0MvE

INFLIGHT MANEUVERS:

CFI - remember to divide attention!!

Straight-and-Level Flight

1.     Establish attitude with AI,

2.     Trim

3.     Confirm straight flight with HI & TC

4.     Confirm level flight with ALT, VSI

Constant Airspeed Climbs

1.     Pitch up to climb attitude with AI (practice without hood to determine cruise to climb attitude?)

2.     Add climb power

3.     Trim

4.     Confirm straight flight with HI & TC

5.     Confirm climb airspeed with ASI, observe VSI

Constant Airspeed Descents

1.     Reduce to descent power

2.     Pitch down to descent attitude with AI,

3.     Trim

4.     Confirm straight flight with HI & TC

5.     Confirm descent airspeed with ASI, observe VSI

Turns to Headings

1.     Establish bank attitude with AI (approximate bank angle = KTAS/10 + 7)

2.     Check TC for std rate, change bank accordingly

3.     Trim, keep well coordinated

4.     Add power to maintain airspeed (only if needed - under-powered aircraft)

5.     Begin roll out of turn at approximately half the bank angle

Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

1.     Determine attitude (see examples). If the attitude is:

2.     Nose High

3.     Apply forward pressure (to break or prevent stall)

4.     Full Power

5.     Level wings with coordinated use of aileron & rudder

6.     Nose Low

7.     Reduce Power to idle

8.     Level wings with coordinated use of aileron & rudder

9.     Apply back pressure to raise nose to level attitude

10.  In both cases, recovery to straight & level flight

POSTFLIGHT

·        Conduct a critique and review procedures and techniques.

Magnetic Compass Attributes & Errors

Magnet Compass  - Errors

Magnetic North  - Earth  North and South Pole
True North  - on Sectional Charts  - have isogonic lines to add or subtract for Magnet North


Navigate off a chart designed which is based on True North and a Magnetic Compass

1. Variation - Angular difference is True and Magnetic North is know as Variation and it changes geographically. East is Least (subtract)  Isogonic line on Sectional Chart - Depicts the Variation 
2. Deviation -  Electrical Electronic system in aircraft  -  Error written on compass card and affix to front face of magnetic card. 
3. DIP Errors - Not impacted on Straight and level unaccelerated flight.
1. Turning - Accelerating or Decelerating  Magnet on the Card Tries to align on the Lines of flux of the earth between the north and south pole. 
1. Cause a downwards deflection or dip of the compass card. 
2. in a turn the compass card dips to the low side of the turn giving an incorrect Turn indication.  Most apparent on North and South heading
3. Turn from a Heading of North it will give an indication of a turn in the opposite direction 
4. Turning from heading South the direction of turn indicated is correct - The rate of turn is faster than the actual turn   (UNOS - Undershoot North Overshoot South)
1. North: Lags   - Roll out about 30 deg before actual heading anticipate lag
2. South : Leads - Roll out about 30deg more that desire heading to correct for lead.
4. Acceleration and Deceleration Error
1. Cause by inertia of the compass card  - If the airplane accelerates, on a heading of east, the inertia of the weight holds the compass card back causing the card to rotate to the North  . It stabilized and card swings to correct east indication.
2. When flying East and decelerate , inertia cause the card to move ahead and rotate towards south until the speed stabilized. 
3. Same thing happened when heading west 
4. ANDS - Accelerates North Decelerate South 

                          Section 7 of  Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

 
  (True Virgins Make Dark Company +w -e)

T   - True
V   - Variation
M  - Magnetic
D   - Deviation
C   - 

+W 
-E  



T   - True  45 deg
V   - Variation
M  - Magnetic
D   - Deviation
C   - 

+W 
-E  

IFR Oral Questions

1. What kind of ice causes the most accidents? (Answer: carb ice)

2. What ice protection equipment does this C172 (Mooney, Cherokee. ... fill in the blank) have? (Answer: carb heat and pitot heat

3. "You are on the VOR DME-A to Ellensburg, WA having just completed the heading turn at ELN and begun the descent out of 3200. The airport is not in sight when both VORs flag. You are not GPS equipped. Radar is generally not available below 4000 msl at this location (which is true). How do you fly the miss?"

4. You were given a route. You were asked if you had lost comm, how would you get from 5000 ft on a given airway to 2200 ft for the approach. Where and how would you lose the altitude.
Answer - Fly to nearest VMC and land

Weather

Weather fundamentals
- Temperature /Dewpoint
- Pressure Systems
- Fronts
- Winds


Pilot Reports
ATC Services
VFR Tips
IFR Tips
Emergency procedures




Weather Theory
----------------


Toposphhere  surface to 20,000'
2 deg drops per 1000' gain


uneven heating of earth surface


North Pole  Cold

up  down   up   air movement surface flow  Less dense and rise

---Equator----  Warm


down up  down  air movement

====South Pole === cold


Equotor recieved grater amount of heat from the sun than polar regions

equator hotter less dense than cooler ... and rise towards the poles

it cools becomes denser and sinks back to the surface.



Actual barometric pressure differs based on
-altitude
- temperature
- air density


Also affects aircraft performance
takeoff
rate of climb
landings



Air flows from high pressure to low pressure

High pressure air (good Pressure)
---------------------------------
air deflects to the right - rotate clockwise
Dry
stable
decending air



Air flow into to replace rising air

Low pressure ( bad weather)
rotates counter clockwise
Unstable
- moist


Beneficial tail winds

Density Altitude (Pressure Altitiude) Worksheet

8-47
(Refer to figure 8 on page 8-30)

Determine the pressure altitude with an indicated altitude of 1,380 feet MSL with an altimeter setting of 28.22 at standard temperature.

a. 3,010 feet MSL
b. 2,991 feet MSL
c. 2,913 feet MSL


A    28.22
B    * Altimeter 28.20   factor 1,630     97 Feet
C    * Altimeter  28.30  factor 1,533

* pressure altitude conversion chart

A - B   =  28.22 - 28.20   = .02
C - B   =  28.30 - 28.20    = .10


97/.1   x .02    = 19.4 feet

Pressure Altitude Conversion Factor  = 1,630  - 19.4 feet  = 1611

Pressure Altitude  = 1, 611 + 1,380 feet MSL = 2,991 feet MSL

Density Altitude   =  Pressure altitude of 2,991 feet MSL to 59 deg intersection on chart is 3600 Feet

Note: 59 deg is standard temperature 













9 Deadly Sins

1. Turn Diameter
2. Induced power required
3. Best position in the canyon
4. Landing /ground speed
5. How to figure real takeoff performance
6. How to adjust Vy and Vx
7. What flap position to use
8. Climb gradient
9. When to use short/soft/obsticle clearance takeoffs

Flight Time Question 8 -56

Flight Time Question

8-56
(Refer to figure 23 on page 4-24)

Determine the estimated time en route for a flight from Priest River Airport (area 1) to Shoshone County Airport (area 3.  The wind is from 030 at 12 knots and the true airspeed is 95 knots. Add 2 minutes for  Climb-out.

a.  27 minutes
b.  29 minutes
c.  31 minutes


                        Priest River                             Shoshone County
From Airport ____________       To Airport ___________

• True Course   =   (draw line from Airport A to Airport B and measure the angle)  142 Deg 
• Distance         =    (measure the distance in knots from airport a and airport b) 48 nm
• Wind Direction/Wind Speed  = 030 @ 12 knots  (given)
• True Airspeed  = 95 knots  (given)
• Ground Speed =  98 knots (calculated)
• Added Time = 2 mins (given)

Distance
------------------   x 60 mins   = Flight Time  in minutes
Ground Speed


With E6B computer .

1. Put the gomet (hold) on the 100 arc
2. Put the value of the True Course (142 deg) under the True Index of the E6B Computer
3. look at wind speed (12 Knots) and mark it above the gomet with a dot
4. Look at the wind direction (30deg) under the true course index you put 30 degrees
5. Notice the dot moves to the right
6. Move the sliding card so that the dot is over 95 (for 95 Knots)
7. Look thru the gomet and see what arc goes thru it  (98 Knots)

Distance  48
------------------         x 60 mins   = Flight Time  in minutes   = 29.4  + 2 mins = 31.4 mins
Ground Speed  98



Problem Questions
Time zone conversion
Zulu time
Flight Time Calculation
Magnetic Heading Calculation
Density Altitude
Pressure Altitude



E6B
True Course Under True Index


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hwgiuiSyww

ILS Systems

Instrument Pilot Course

• Components of and ILS 
• ILS Theory of Operation
• Cockpit Indication
• ILS Plan View
• ILS Profile View
• ILS Minimums
• LDA and SDF Approaches

ILS Components

• Localizer
• Glide Slope
• Marker Beacons
• Compass Locators
• Approach Lights
• Runway Markings

Localizer 

• Provides Left/Right Course guidance all the way to Miss approach 
• VHF Signal  - limited line of sight,  located at departure end of runway
• Last digit is always an ODD number eg 110.3 MHz
• 4 times more sensitive than VOR so full scale deflection on localizer mean pilot is 2 1/2 degrees off an ILS course

• Localizer is an antenna on the  emitting 2 beams of frequency .. left (yellow) one frequency and right (blue) a different frequency. 
• When pilot is center of both frequency (centred of runway) it will receive both frequencies equally
• When aircraft is to right it will only pick up one frequency and needle will deflect far right. 
• If aircraft picks up both frequencies then aircraft MUST be at the center of runway

Glide Slope

• Provides Vertical guidance all the way to the mis approach point in special cases all the way to touchdown
• Glide slope is NOT connected to the Localizer
• Separate signal from the side of the runway all the way upwards
• Uses UHF signal 
• Although not connected, the Glide slope frequency is paired with localizer frequency
• Glide slope frequency is NOT displayed to the pilot .. 

Marker Beacons

• Provides range information to airport 
• Outer marker allows for G/S Check
• Both Visual and Aural Indication
• Being phased out 
• 3 types of Marker Beacon - Outer, Middle, Inner 
• Pilot identify Marker Beacon by lights   Outer - Blue, Middle Yellow , Inner - White
• Pilot also identify Marker Beacon by Tone - Outer - long tone, Middle short longer tone at a quicker pace, Inner - very short tone rapidly

Compass Locator

• Substitutes for a marker beacon
• NDB Station
• Can be used to navigate to 
• Low power station
• Pilot needs an ADF Receiver in aircraft to use NDB

Approach Light System

• IFR to VFR Transition
• Provides lower visibility approaches
• Become part of the airport environment
• Runway Markings 

Plan View

• Top down view of the ILS 
• Shows course to fly and fixes
• Shows localizer frequency
• Shows terrain

Profile View

• shows altitude
• shows step down fixes
• shows G/S crossing height

Minimums

• Shows DA 
• Shows equipment failure altitudes
• show visibility requirements

Approach Termination

• Landing from the ILS
• Missed Approach

LDA and SDF Approaches

• Localizer directional type aid
• Not in line with the runway centerline
• Same accuracy as an localizer
• SDF - Simplified directional facility 
• Less accuracy than an localizer 
• May or may not align with runway centerline

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8OyEWsTi1g#t=41.94182

Private Pilot Course - Ground Portion - Oral Exam

Private Pilot Course - Ground Portion - Oral Exam

• Knowledge Exam  - Computerized Exam
• Oral Exam  - With Examination
• Practical Exam  - Fly the Flight Plan, Diversion, Maneuvers, Under hood

Required Documents

• Student Pilot Certificate
• Medical Certificate
• Government Issued Photo ID
• Log Book
• Knowledge Test Results

Examiner Verify Sec 61.109 is met    (use sticker to highlight section)
- Hours
- Takeoffs
- Landings
- Flight Distances Required

Instructor Endorsements in Logbook Verify Sec 61.107 and Verify Sec 61.105

ICARA   Integrated Airman Certification and Rating Application (On Line)
Pilot's Bill of Rights, Electronic Sign . Validate ID.

1. Plan A VFR Flight, Fuel, Weight and Balance

2. Airplane  
ARROW (Airworthiness, Registration, Radio, Operating Limits, Weight and Balance)
Engine / Airplane Logs
Inspection -
Last 100 hours inspection
Transponder Test
ELT Battery
ELT 12 months inspection
Registration

Mark with TABS -

AD Note - FAA Airworthiness Directive   Recurring  done in log in log book
Annual Inspection  - Airplane logbook / Airframe Log book

To take passenger 3 take off and landing within 90 days
1 every 24 calendar month

Night - 3 take off and landing with 90 days to a full stop
sunset and sun

3. Weather for the Flight -
Forecast of destination airport  - Terminal Area Forecast
Winds Alof on Flight path  3,000'  6,000  Temperature /Winds
Nodams - Notice to Airman  things out broken, closed
Weather Charts - Weather depiction -   Ares of IFR marginal VFR,
Radar Summary - Precipitation
Weather Prog Chart -  4 panel forecast  surface weather, weather to 24,000'

Sigmet - Signaficant - sever s
Airmet - lighter turbulence / freezing lev
Convective Signemt -

Windshare airport  - Use Higher indicator airspeed

4. POH -
Use of Charts - Take off distance problem (performance Section)
Gross weight  - Lift off speed / higher pressure altitude (altitude at standard 29.92)  elevation and temperature (use warmer temperature)   Ground roll  50' Obstacle

Cruse Performance   - 70% Power True Airspeed / fuel consumption GPH

Temperature At 8,000'  True Airspeed 140 Knots True .. Calibrated Airspeed
Head Wind/Tail Wind component

Landing Distance Problem -
23:00mins

Higher Distance Altitude - Use of Flaps  

Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected by non standard temperature -
The higher the density altitude the worst the aircraft will perform
Temperature 90 deg outside  6,100'  29.93    -  densitity altitude 10,000'   - aircraft will perform at 10,000 feet ...  poor performance


5. Weight and Balance
Moments arm CG  envelope

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kr483zBbQKw

Check RIde - Diversion

During Diversion:

• Heading - What is your new heading (Triangulated method East 90 Deg, South 180 deg, west 270
• Altitude  - Odd Thousand + 500, Notify ATC of intentions or ask for vectors)
• Navigate -  Use Aircraft Navigation equipment GPS Direct/VOR to make sure you are navigating to airport
• Distance - Use Plotter - (use Nautical Miles not Statue Miles) How far are you away from airport. When you are flying with no headwind or tail wind your ground speed is the same as true airspeed
• Time - E6B How long it will take us 
• Fuel   - What is your fuel burn  (from POH /Flight plan) (9Gal/hr)
• Weather  - What is the Weather at destination airport
• Notams

Using your E6B and VFR Chart you must answer:  (create a winds card
Calculate at Altitude what the Ground Speed will be in All Direction . All headings - 360, 050, 090, 140, 180, 230, 270, 320

• What heading should I fly?
• How long will it take me?   (Wind Card)
• Will I make it?  Traveling at ABC Ground speed for XYZ miles - do you have enough Fuel?

Create a Wind/Speed CArd with Wind Aloft information 

change your windcard from displaying groundspeed to displaying a headwind or tailwind component for each sector e.g. +5 or -8 because during a diversion in which fuel conservation is a consideration then it's possible you may be required to decrease power (increase range/endurance etc).

Emergency Procedure

Emergency Procedure

Radio Failure 

• Check another radio, frequency, headset etc
• Assume you may be transmitting
• Try another ATC frequency
• Squack 7600
• Consider landing at Non-Towered Airport
• Pattern Procedure  Over fly Field
• Tower - Remember your light Gun Sign

Communication Basics 101

PHONETIC ALPHABET

Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliet
Kilo, Lima, Mile, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform,
Victor,  Wiskey, Xray, Yankee, Zulu, Ground Control

Ground Control
TRACON - Terminal Radar Approach Control  (Approach or Approach Control)
Class C and B  -area - separating and sequencing IFR traffic


DEPARTURE COMMUNICATION
     
Ground Communication 
Who    - Hanscom Ground, Cessna 5552Yankee
Where  - East Ramp
What   - Ready to taxi (to active/For departure) with information Bravo

Pilot:  Hanscom Ground Cessna 345YG West Ramp Taxi to Runway 29 with information Bravo
Ground Control:  Cessna 345YG taxi to Runway 29 via Echo Gulf
Pilot:  Taxi to 29 Via Echo Gulf 5YG


Tower Communication
Who    - Hanscom Tower, Cessna 5552Yankee
Where  - Holding Short Runway 29
What   - Ready for Takeoff Heading West
 
Pilot:  Hanscom Tower Cessna 345YG Holding Short Runway 29 Ready for Takeoff Heading West 
Control Tower:  Cessna 345YG Clear for Takeoff  Left Turn out 
Pilot:  Clear for Takeoff  Left Turn 5YG 



ARRIVAL COMMUNICATION

Tower Communication
Who    - Hanscom Tower, Cessna 5552Yankee
Where  - 10 miles North West
What   - Inbound for landingn runway 5
 
Pilot:  Hanscom Tower Cessna 345YG  10 Miles over Minuteman inbound for landing Runway 29
Control Tower:  Cessna 345YG Report on Downwind  29 /Clear for Landing 
Pilot:  Clear for Landing Runway 29 5YG 

Ground Communication 
Who    - Hanscom Ground, Cessna 5552Yankee
Where  - East Ramp
What   - Ready to taxi (to active/For departure) with information Bravo

Pilot:  Hanscom Ground Cessna 345YG  Off Runway 29 on Gulf  Taxi to west ramp
Control Tower:  Cessna 345YG taxi to West Ramp via Gulf Echo 
Pilot:  Taxi to West Ramp via Gulf Echo 5YG


Typical ATC Phraseology
can you accept an immediate?
caution wake turbulence
square your turn to final
give me  S-turn please
I'll call your base
Line up and wait
Do you have the numbers
How do you hear?
state your intentions
Cleared for the options
"Taxi to Position" or "Take-Off Clearance"
"standby"



Air Traffic Control Common Phraseology
"Cleared to taxi"
When told by ground control or tower that you are cleared to taxi, the controller has given you instruction to taxi along taxiway centerlines according to taxiway markings. It is important to repeat all controller instructions and runway crossing instructions, as you may be told to "hold short" of a specific runway and wait for further instructions.

"Position and hold"
The tower expects you to taxi onto runway centerline and maintain a stopped position while the aircraft in front of you gains separation or clears the runway. It is important that, prior to crossing the hold-short lines, you verify your instructions, verify runway of use, and scan extended final for traffic.

"Cleared for takeoff"
The tower controller is the only authority to clear you for takeoff at a controlled airfield. Repeat back your takeoff clearance and call sign, as well as scan final for traffic. The tower may request other specific instructions, so listen closely to your takeoff clearance.

"Enter closed traffic"
The tower has acknowledged the pilot's intention to perform successive operations involving takeoffs and landings or low approaches where the aircraft does not exit the traffic pattern.

"Cleared for the option"
When you are cleared for the option you have been given permission to either do a touch-and-go, make a low approach, missed approach, stop and go, or full-stop landing. If requesting this clearance, the pilot should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.

"Cleared touch-and-go"
When authorized by the tower, the touch-and-go procedure allows the pilot to land on the runway, reconfigure the airplane and perform a takeoff to re-enter the traffic pattern. If requesting this approach the pilot should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.

"Cleared low approach"
A low approach clearance allows the pilot to perform a simulated emergency landing or normal landing down to the runway environment (100' AGL) and then perform a go-around to re-enter or depart the pattern. If requesting this approach you should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.

"Cleared stop-and-go"
A stop-and-go clearance allows the pilot to land on the runway, come to a full stop, and then takeoff on the remaining length of runway. The pilot must be aware of runway lengths and takeoff distance requirements. This procedure can be beneficial in keeping costs lower when performing night currency. If requesting this clearance the pilot should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.

"Cleared to land"
When given clearance to land the tower has authorized you to land on the runway in use. The phrase "cleared to land" gives you immediate use of that runway, unless the tower advises that you are in sequence for landing ("number two to land, number three, etc..."). After advising approach or tower that you are inbound for landing at your destination you do not have to make any further request for clearance to land.

"Land-and-hold-short"
The land-and-hold-short procedure requires the pilot to perform an accurate landing on the runway so that the pilot can stop the aircraft before reaching an intersecting runway, intersecting taxiway, or construction area. If you are unable to comply with landand-hold-short operations, you may request clearance for a different runway.

"Make Short Approach"
Used by ATC to have a pilot to alter their traffic pattern so as to make a short final approach. If unable to execute a short approach, simply tell the ATC so.

"Parking with me"
Under normal conditions you would exit the runway at the first available taxiway, stop the aircraft after clearing the runway, and call ground control for instructions if you have not already received them. If the controller says "parking with me", he or she has given you clearance to taxi to your destination.

"Caution: wake turbulence"
This call from ATC advises the pilot of the potential for encountering wake turbulence from departing or arriving aircraft.

"Frequency change approved"
You've reached the edge of the controller's airspace and may change your radio to your next frequency.

"Proceed direct"
You may turn to the direct heading of your destination (often followed by this heading). Usually used by ATC once you've been vectored clear of other traffic in the area.

"Report position"
The controller wants to pinpoint your position relative to the airport. You should report altitude, distance, and direction. For example: "8081G is five miles southwest of the airport at one thousand two hundred feet"

"Expedite"
ATC would like you to hurry up whatever it is that you're doing; taking off, landing, climbing, descending, or taxiing to your destination.

"Ident"
ATC request for a pilot to use his aircraft transponder identification feature (usually an IDENT button). This helps the controller to confirm an aircraft identity and position.

"Squawk"
Followed by a squawk code or function button on the transponder. ATC issues individual squawk codes to all aircraft within radar service in order to differentiate traffic.

"Go around"
Pilots receiving this transmission should abandon their approach to landing. Additional instructions from ATC may then follow. Unless otherwise instructed, VFR aircraft executing a go around should overfly the runway while climbing to pattern altitude, then enter the traffic pattern by way of the crosswind leg.

"Watch for Traffic..."
Usually followed by the direction and distance of the traffic, you should immediately scan for it with "Looking for traffic" and report back to the controller whether you have the aircraft in sight or not.

"Extend Downwind"
While this may seem obvious, the controller wants you to continue straight on your downwind until he or she tells you to turn base (often followed by "I'll call your base"). In all likelyhood you're going to have a long final. Keep course and scan for other traffic.




Air Terms and Aviation Glossary

AGL - Above Ground Level, as a measurement of altitude above a specific land mass, and differentiated from MSL.

ADF - Automatic Direction Finding via automated radio.

ADI - Attitude direction indicator. Shows the roll and pitch of the aircraft.

AFCS - Automatic flight control system that provides inputs to the fight controls to assist the pilot in maneuvering and handling the aircraft.

AFT - Referring to the rear of the aircraft.

AI - Altitude indicator. Displays the aircraft's altitude above sea level.

Aileron - The movable areas of a wingform that control or affect the roll of an aircraft by working opposite one another-up-aileron on the right wing and down-aileron on the left wing.

AIM - Airman's Information Manual - A primary FAA publication whose purpose is to instruct airmen about operating in the US airspace system.

ADC - Air Data Computer - A primary sensor-based navigation data source.

AGR - Air-Ground Ranging - Straight-line distance from the aircraft to a point on the ground.

ATC - Air Traffic Control - A service operated by the appropriate authority to promote the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic.

Airfoil - The shape of the wing when looking at its profile. Usually a teardrop shape.

Airframe - The fuselage, booms, nacelles, cowlings, fairings, and airfoil surfaces of an aircraft.

Airspeed - The speed of an aircraft relative to its surrounding air mass. See: calibrated airspeed; indicated airspeed; true airspeed.

Airspeed Indicator - An onboard instrument which registers velocity through the air, usually in knots. Different from ground speed.

AIS - Aeronautical Information Service.

ALS - Approach light system. A lighting system installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end.

ALT - Short term for Altitude.

Altimeter - An onboard instrument which senses air pressure in order to gauge altitude.

Altimeter Setting - The barometric pressure reading used to adjust a pressure altimeter for variations in existing atmospheric pressure.

Altitude - Height of an aircraft, usually with respect to the terrain below.

Angle of Attack - The angle between the chord line of the wing of an aircraft and the relative wind.

Annual - Mandatory inspection of airframe and power plant that occurs every 12 months.

AO - Aircraft Operator.

AOPA - Aircraft Owner and Pilot's Association.

APP - Approach (Control).

Approach Speed - The recommended speed contained in aircraft manuals used by pilots when making an approach to landing.

ARCID - Aircraft Identification.

ATA - Actual Time of Arrival. As opposed to ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival) used in filing a flight plan.

ATD - Actual Time of Departure. As opposed to ETD (Estimated Time of Departure) used in filing a flight plan.

ATIS - Automated Terminal Information Service usually containing vital information on wind direction, velocity, pressure readings, and active runway assignment for that particular airport.

Attitude - The primary aircraft angles in the state vector; pitch, roll, and yaw.

Attitude Indicator - A vacuum powered instrument which displays pitch and roll movement about the lateral and longitudinal axes.

ADF - Automatic Direction Finding - A basic guidance mode, providing lateral guidance to a radio station. Equipment that determines bearing to a radio station.

Autopilot - A method of an automatic flight control system which controls primary flight controls to meet specific mission requirements.

Autorotation - A rotorcraft flight condition in which the lifting rotor is driven entirely by action of the air when the rotorcraft is in motion.




AVGAS - Aviation Gasoline (piston aircraft fuel).

Bernoulli Effect - Airflow over the upper surface of an airfoil causes suction (lift) because the airstream has been speeded up in relation to positive pressure of the airflow on the lower surface.

CAS - Calibrated Airspeed - The indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for position and instrument error. CAS is equal to true airspeed in standard atmosphere at sea level.

Camber - The convex or concave curvature of an airfoil.

CAT - Clear Air Turbulance.

CAVU - Ceiling and Visibility Unlimited; ideal flying weather.

Ceiling - The heights above the earth's surface of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that is reported as "broken," "overcast," or "obscured".

CG - Center of Gravity - The longitudinal and lateral point in an aircraft where it is stable; the static balance point.

Chord - The measurable distance between the leading and trailing edges of a wingform.

CTAF - Common Traffic Advisory Frequency - A frequency designed for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, Multicom, FSS, or tower frequency and is identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.

Controlled Airspace - An airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification. Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace.

Crabbing - A rudder-controlled yawing motion to compensate for a crosswind in maintaining a desired flight path, as in a landing approach.

Dead Reckoning - The process of estimating one's current position based upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known speed, elapsed time, and course.

Deadstick - Descending flight with engine and propeller stopped.

Departure Stall - A stall in the takeoff configuration with power.

Deviation (Magnetic) - The error of a Magnetic Compass due to inherent magnetic influences in the structure and equipment of an aircraft.

Directional Gyro - A panel instrument providing a gyroscopic reading of an aircraft's compass heading.

DME - Distance Measuring Equipment, a radio navigation device that determines an aircraft's distance from a given ground station, as well as its groundspeed and time to/from the station.

Drag - The resisting force exerted on an aircraft in its line of flight opposite in direction to its motion.

Dry Weight - The weight of an engine exclusive of any fuel, oil, and coolant.

Elevator - The movable part of a horizontal airfoil which controls the pitch of an aircraft, the fixed part being the Stabilzer.

ETA - Estimated time of arrival.

ETD - Estimated time of departure.

FBO - Fixed-Base Operator. A commercial operator supplying fuel, maintenance, flight training, and other services at an airport.

FAR - Federal Air Regulations.

Flap - A movable, usually hinged airfoil set in the trailing edge of an aircraft wing, designed to increase lift or drag by changing the camber of the wing or used to slow an aircraft during landing by increasing lift.

Flare - A control wheel maneuver performed moments before landing in which the nose of an aircraft is pitched up to minimize the touchdown rate of speed.

Flight Envelope - An aircraft's performance limits, specifically the curves of speed plotted against other variables to indicate the limits of speed, altitude, and acceleration that a particular aircraft cannot safely exceed.

Flight Plan - Specified information relating to the intended flight of an aircraft, filed orally or in writing with an FSS or an ATC facility.

FSS - Flight Service Station - Air traffic facilities which provide pilot briefing, enroute communications and VFR search and rescue services, and assist lost aircraft.

Fuselage - An aircraft's main body structure housing the flight crew, passengers, and cargo and to which the wings, tail and, in most single-engined airplanes, engine are attached.

GA - General Aviation - That portion of civil aviation which encompasses all facets of aviation except air carriers holding a certificate of public convenience and necessity from the Civil Aeronautics Board and large aircraft commercial operators.

Glass Cockpit - Said of an aircraft's control cabin which has all-electronic, digital and computer-based, instrumentation.

Glider - An unpowered aircraft capable of maintaining altitude only briefly after release from tow, then gliding to earth.

Glide Scope - (1) The angle between horizontal and the glide path of an aircraft. (2) A tightly-focused radio beam transmitted from the approach end of a runway indicating the minimum approach angle that will clear all obstacles; one component of an instrument landing system (ILS).

GPS - Global Positioning System; satellite-based navigation, rapidly replacing dead reckoning methods.

Gross Weight - The total weight of an aircraft when fully loaded, including fuel, cargo, and passengers; aka Takeoff Weight.

Ground Control - Tower control, by radioed instructions from air traffic control, of aircraft ground movements at an airport.

Ground Effect - Increased lift generated by the interaction between a lift system and the ground when an aircraft is within a wingspan distance above the ground. It affects a low-winged aircraft more than a mid- or high-winged aircraft because its wings are closer to the ground.

Ground Speed - The actual speed that an aircraft travels over the ground�its "shadow speed"; it combines the aircraft's airspeed and the wind's speed relative to the aircraft's direction of flight.

IFR - Instrument Flight Rules, governing flight under instrument meteorological conditions.

ILS - Instrument Landing System. A radar-based system allowing ILS-equipped aircraft to find a runway and land when clouds may be as low as 200' (or lower for special circumstances).

IAS - Indicated Air Speed - A direct instrument reading obtained from an air speed indicator uncorrected for altitude, temperature, atmospheric density, or instrument error. Compare calibrated airspeed and true airspeed.

IMC - Instrument Meterological Conditions - Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from clouds, and ceiling less than minimal specified for visual meteorological conditions (VMC).

Knot - One nautical mile, about 1.15 statute miles (6,080'); eg: 125kts = 143.9mph.

Lift - The force exerted on the top of a moving airfoil as a low-pressure area [vacuum] that causes a wingform to rise. airfoils do not "float" on air, as is often assumed - like a boat hull floats on water - but are "pulled up" (lifted) by low air pressures trying to equalize.

Lift-Drag Ratio - The lift coefficient of a wing divided by the drag coefficient, as the primary measure of the efficiency of an aircraft; aka L/D ratio.

Liquid Compass - A non-electronic, calibratable compass floating in a liquid as a panel instrument; aka wet compass.

Load Factor - The proportion between lift and weight commonly seen as g (sometimes capitalized) - a unit of force equal to the force of gravity times one.

LORAN - Long Range Navigation System - Utilizes timing differences between multiple low-frequency transmissions to provide accurate latitude/longitude position information to within 50'.

LTA - Lighter-than-air craft, generally referring to powered blimps and dirigibles, but often also includes free balloons.

Magnetic Compass - The most common liquid-type compass, capable of calibration to compensate for magnetic influences within the aircraft.

Magnetic Course - Compass course + or - deviation.

Magnetic North - The magnetic North pole, located near 71° North latitude and 96° West longitude, that attracts a magnetic compass which is not influenced by local magnetic attraction.

MAG - Magneto - An accessory that produces and distributes a high-voltage electric current for ignition of a fuel charge in an internal combustion engine.

MSL - Mean Sea Level. The average height off the surface of the sea for all stages of tide; used as a reference for elevations, and differentiated from AGL.

METAR - Acronym in FAA pilot briefings and weather reports simply means an "aviation routine weather report".

NDB - Non Directional Beacon - An LF, MF, or UHF radio beacon transmitting non-directional signals whereby the pilot of an aircraft equipped with direction finding equipment can determine his bearing to or from the radio beacon and "home" on or track to or from the station.

PAR - Precision Approach Radar, a ground-radar-based instrument approach providing both horizontal and vertical guidance.

Pattern - The path of aircraft traffic around an airfield, at an established height and direction. At tower-controlled fields the pattern is supervised by radio (or, in non-radio or emergency conditions by red and green light signals) by air traffic controllers. Flying an entire pattern is called a 'Circuit'.

PIC - Pilot in Command - The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of an aircraft during flight time.

Pitch - Of the three axes in flight, this specifies the vertical action, the up-and-down movement.

Pitot Tube - More accurately but less popularly used, Pitot-Static Tube, a small tube most often mounted on the outward leading edge of an airplane wing (out of the propeller stream) that measures the impact pressure of the air it meets in flight, working in conjuction with a closed, perforated, coaxial tube that measures the static pressure.

Roll - Of the three axes in flight, this specifies the action around a central point.

Rotorcraft - A heavier-than-air aircraft that depends principally for its support in flight on the lift generated by one or more rotors. Includes helicopters and gyroplanes.

Rudder - The movable part of a vertical airfoil which controls the YAW of an aircraft; the fixed part being the fin.

Scud - A low, foglike cloud layer.

Service Ceiling - The height above sea level at which an aircraft with normal rated load is unable to climb faster than 100' per minute under Standard Air conditions.

Sideslip - A movement of an aircraft in which a relative flow of air moves along the lateral axis, resulting in a sideways movement from a projected flight path, especially a downward slip toward the inside of a banked turn.

Sink, Sinking Speed - The speed at which an aircraft loses altitude, especially in a glide in still air under given conditions of equilibrium.

Skid - Too shallow a bank in a turn, causing an aircraft to slide outward from its ideal turning path.

Slip - Too steep a bank in a turn, causing an aircraft to slide inward from its ideal turning path.

Slipstream - The flow of air driven backward by a propeller or downward by a rotor.

Squawk Code - A four-digit number dialed into his transponder by a pilot to identify his aircraft to air traffic controllers.

Stabilizer - The fixed part of a horizontal airfoil that controls the pitch of an aircraft; the movable part being the elevator.

Stall - (1) Sudden loss of lift when the angle of attack increases to a point where the flow of air breaks away from a wing or airfoil, causing it to drop. (2) A maneuver initiated by the steep raising of an aircraft's nose, resulting in a loss of velocity and an abrupt drop.

TAS - True Air Speed - True Air Speed. Because an air speed indicator indicates true air speed only under standard sea-level conditions, true air speed is usually calculated by adjusting an Indicated Air speed according to temperature, density, and pressure.

Thrust - The driving force of a propeller in the line of its shaft or the forward force produced in reaction to the gases expelled rearward from a jet or rocket engine. Opposite of drag.

Torque - A twisting, gyroscopic force acting in opposition to an axis of rotation, such as with a turning propeller; aka Torsion.

Touch-and-Go - Landing practice in which an aircraft does not make a full stop after a landing, but proceeds immediately to another take-off.

Transponder - An airborne transmitter that responds to ground-based interrogation signals to provide air traffic controllers with more accurate and reliable position information than would be possible with "passive" radar; may also provide air traffic control with an aircraft's altitude.

Trim Tab - A small, auxiliary control surface in the trailing edge of a wingform, adjustable mechanically or by hand, to counteract ("trim") aerodynamic forces on the main control surfaces.

Turn & Bank Indicator - Primary air-driven gyro instrument, a combined turn indicator and lateral inclinometer to show forces on an aircraft in banking turns. Also referred to as "needle & ball" indicator, the needle as the gyro's pointer and a ball encased in a liquid-filled, curved tube.

Uncontrolled Airspace - Class G Airspace; airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, D or E.

UNICOM - Universal Communication - A common radio frequency (usually 121.0 mHz) used at uncontrolled (non-tower) airports for local pilot communication.

Useful Load - The weight of crew, passengers, fuel, baggage, and ballast, generally excluding emergency or portable equipment and ordnance.

V - Velocity - Used in defining air speeds, listed below:
  VA = Maneuvering Speed (max structural speed for full control deflection)
  VD = Max Dive Speed (for certification only)
  VFE = Max Flaps Extended Speed
  VLE = Max Landing Gear Extended Speed
  VLO = Max Landing Gear Operation Speed
  VNE = Never Exceed Speed
  VNO = Max Structural Cruising Speed
  VS0 = Stalling Speed Landing Configuration
  VS1 = Stalling Speed in a specified Configuration
  VX = Best Angle of Climb Speed
  VXSE = Best Angle of Climb Speed, one engine out
  VY = Best Rate of Climb Speed
  VYSE = Best Rate of Climb Speed, one engine out

VASI - Visual Approach Slope Indicator - A system of lights on the side of an airport runway that provides visual descent guidance information during the approach to a runway.

Venturi Tube - A small, hourglass-shaped metal tube, usually set laterally on a fuselage in the slipstream to create suction for gyroscopic panel instruments. Now outdated by more sophisticated means.

VFR - Visual Flight Rules that govern the procedures for conducting flight under visual conditions. The term is also used in the US to indicate weather conditions that are equal to or greater than minimum VFR requirements. Also used by pilots and controllers to indicate a specific type of flight plan.

VMC - Visual Meteorological Conditions - Expressed in terms of visibility, distance from clouds, and ceiling equal to or better than specified minima.

VOR - VHF OmniRange - A ground-based navigation aid transmitting very high-frequency (VHF) navigation signals 360° in azimuth, on radials oriented from magnetic nort. The VOR periodically identifies itself by Morse Code and may have an additional voice identification feature. Voice features can be used by ATC or FSS for transmitting information to pilots.

VSI - Vertical Speed Indicator. A panel instrument that gauges rate of climb or descent in feet-per-minute (fpm). Also called the Rate Of Climb Indicator.

Yaw - Of the three axes in flight, this specifies the side-to-side movement of an aircraft on its vertical axis, as in skewing.

Yoke - The control wheel of an aircraft, akin to a automobile steering wheel.


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