Inside a Single Engine Aircraft

 

Exam

 

https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/supplements

VOR Questions  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=it68YViqlsY

Navigation - Pilotage and Dead Recononing

• Pilotage  - Visual Reference to Promenent Landmarks
• Dead Reckoning - Computation based time, distance, air speed and direction

5 Parts

Checkpoints -  Plot 2 or 3 closer checkpoints from the departure airport so you can demonistrate Pilotage and Dead Reckoning to the DPE 

1. Identify a Straight Line Route Between Departure airport and Destination airport 
Get Ground Track and True Course  (Plot True Course)

2. Finger Flight the route - Identify Promenent Landmarks, 10-20miles

3. Adjust routes for any hazards (no special used airspace, flight Restrictions, or hazards to make one change the route.

4. Identify possible stops for emergencies, fuel, streaching, bathroom breaks etc

5. Breaking routes into segments and defining checkpoints 
- Always try to keep checkpoint 10-20 nautical miles apart (keep workload managable and not far apart to get lost ) 
- pick checkpoints to the left or right of aircraft because it will be easier to see from the air. if you fly right ontop of it you may not see it.  

- Must be visible from the air (roads, towns, Rivers, Railroads, 

- Use multiple features

Which Direction are you going to point the Airplane?
Bearing to Destination  +/- Wind Correction  Then correct for Magnetic Variation
True Course 219 Deg   (Winds & Temp Alof Info Calculate Wind Correction Angle) + 5 Deg = True Heading 

How High and how Fast will I be going 
Hight = 4,500'MSL
Speed = True Airspeed  (Cruse Performance chart at 75% power at 4000' pressure altitude) Expect 123Knots True Airspeed  + (Wind Veolicity and direction at 4,500' to determine Ground Speed)

How Long will it Take to Get There 
We know the Ground Speed and Distance from other Calculations, we can get Distance (Nautical Miles) /Speed (Knots) = Time  (do it for each leg and add it together) 

How much Fuel Will I Need?
Time (Minuits/60= Time in Hour x11.0 Gal/Hr (info from 75%Cruise Power Chart)  Distance and Fuel Table we'll get an estimate for each leg and add everything up  (note Fuel for Start/Runup and Taxi)

Flight Across North Atlantic Ocean

 

The North Atlantic Ocean is one of the busiest airspaces in the entire world. On average, about 1,800 flights cross the eerie ocean every day. The ocean connects two major markets, Europe and North America. Flights range from commercial to cargo to military personnel. Considering that there is minimal radar coverage above the ocean, how do airplanes continue on course without a hiccup? Even if the pilot has filed in a correct flight route, tower communication is still necessary. The answer is, The North Atlantic Organized Track System (NAT-OTS) is known in shorthand as the North Atlantic Tracks, or even as NATs.

Th

The space is divided in 10 deg longitude 15 deg Sectors and as a flight enters each sector they report to Shanwick and Gander.  Shannon is the airport. The oceanic ATC center is called Shanwich control 

Cross-Country

 

Bring with you in the Cross Country Flight

• E6B flight Computer
• NAV Log
• Weights and Balance
• Performance Calculations 
• Pencle

Prior to Take off on a Cross Country Flight do the following:

• File a flight plan - 
• Write down take off time 
• Start your timer for timing calculation

Poilatage - to 1st way point.
Runway heading for a couple miles, then turn to your wind corrected heading to 1st waypoint
When open flight plan, you will recieve a squak code, and Altimeter Setting 

Things to do at every way point  (T-HAT)
1. TIME - Note Time,  Restart clock every time you reach a waypoint 
2. Heading
3. Altitude 
4. Turn Point

If you are behind on time, you need to validate you have enough fuel

Calculate Ground Speed -  on E6B  if it takes 15.5 mins to fly 11 miles setup the e6b to get the ground speed which is 42knots  (heavy headwind)

Distance remaining on  E6B 

Level off 
- Lean mixture
- Power setting
- Wind correction (headwind or tailwinds)
- Speed
Aviage, Navigate, Communicate

Clock  => Map => Ground 

Clock almost there then check map to make sure you did not look outside and mixup a wrong waypoint eg a road

Weight and Balance

 Weight and Balance

Fulcrum = Center of Lift  changes with changing of Angle of attack  (wings)

Center of Gravity must be infront of Center of lift

E6B Flight Computer

 

E6B has 2 sides: Wind side; Computer side

Computer side has 3 outer ring Scales:

1. A Scale Distance
2. B Scale is Time (mins)
3. C Scale is Time (Hours)
4. Air Temperature/Pressure Altitude/Density Altitude

How Fast are you going?

Need 2 piece of information

1. Distance?

2. Time it took to get there?

E6B has  2 sides: Calculator side and Wind side

Question 1

1. How Long will this Flight Take if  TAS=90Knots; Winds 230@10

and from Sectional Chart you're flying:

True Course 178deg  and  True Airspeed 90Knots

Wind Side

Wind Direction under 

• Set Wind Direction 210 deg Under True Index
• Mark up 10 Knots from 100 center (set the wind volocity Mark) 
• Set/Move true course 178 under true index
• Slide the wind volocity Mark 10Knots to the True Airspeed 90Knots
• Ground Speed reads under Center which is 83Knots

How long will this Flight Take?

Calculate side

Distance 96 Nautical Miles

Set Knots 83 under Arow

A Scale Distance

B Scale is Time  

Look at 96 on upper scaler 

Read 69 mins on Scaler B

Answer = 69 knots

Question 2

Find Time, Speed, Distance, WCA, Fuel Burn
TAS = 110 Knots, Winds-330@14; Burning 15GPH
Gainsville to Ocala Distance = 182 Heading (True Course) and distance is 31 nautical miles

What Altitude to Fly

 

Factors to Determine what altitude to Fly

1. Fly East and West - Even or Odd thousand + 500'
2. Stay out of the clouds and clear of obsticles
3. Current Sky Condition?
4. Temperature
5. Temperature and Winds alof

What is the lowest we can fly?

MEF Minimum Elevation Figure - The Blue Number you see in the Sectional Chart in Each Quadrangle in between the lines of Longititude and the Lines of Latitude. If chart are current, you should be above 100' of obsticle clearance.  - Recommend stay above 1,000' above MEF for congested area and 500' above MEF in non-congested area. 

Winds Alof Table

Aviation Surface Forcast

Aviaton cloud Forecast

https://aviationweather.gov/

METAR

TAF - Terminal Area Forecast

Winds and Temp

What is the highest  we can fly?

Surfice cealing of the Aircraft - where the aircraft can no longer climb 100' per minuite, see the "Climb Performance Chart of the POH

How can you stay 

1. Current Sectional Chart
2. VFR Naviagtion Log
3. Plotter/Procractor
4. Current Winds Alof Chart
5. POH - Cruse Performance Section 5  (use to find True Airspeed - Cruse Performance)
1. Pick Cruse Altitude and RPM setting you want to fly
2. you need to know the Pressure Altitude you need to fly by  subtracting Standard 29.92 - current altimeter setting (you get from METAR at destination Airport)
3. Current METAR for Altimeter Setting at altitude you  (mediogram website windy.com -altimeter predictions)
6. E6B - To find Fuel Burn, calibrated airspeed (Temperature and pressure altitude info) , indicate Airspeed  (POH - Airspeed Calibration Chart)
7. (POH - Climb Performance  Chart - Time Fuel Distance - notes for fuel burn start, taxi toc)

True Course (actual Ground Track in Relation to True North

Winds Alof Data is relations to True North

Lapse Rate every 1,000' up, you lose 2deg C

Magnetic Heading  

Way point  every 10-20 miles

Lapse rate

 feet

6-pack Instruments

The happiest day of your life is when you buy an aeroplane and when you selling it! 

ASI, also shows limiting speeds, horizon, only when up.to speed, no flag, and not toppled if mechanical. 

Altimeter. Barometric height above pilot set ptessure datum, not necessarily sea l.evel 

TS shows Yaw rate, not necessarily turn rate. 

Heading indicator. Only magnetic if slaved to compass or recently synchronised to a mag compass. 

VSI does NOT use pitot input except in sailplanes

DPE - Checkride

 DPE Discussion will certainly help you and your student get ready for their check ride, so come and join us!

We will discuss:

1. Exam Preparation is a must- Paperwork, endorsements, aircraft documentation

2. Organization on the day of the check ride

3. Oral Portion -Aircraft System Knowledge, Inoperative Equipment, weather deciphering the go no go decision making, Setting up your student for success

4. Flight Portion- Maneuvers that are a problem for the applicants, lack of decision making, who is the PIC

5. Safety 

Power Settings in IFR flying

 SIX CONFIGURATIONS for IFR flying Known power settings help control the airplane while flying IFR

Performance = Power + Pitch

Cruise Level 2400 rpm

Approach Level 2200 rpm/100 kts

Holding Pattern Level 2000 rpm/90 kts

Get out of there (Miss Approach) - Full power /Vy climb

Precision Approach Descent - 1800 rpm/90 kts/500FPM

Non-Precision Approach Descent - 1500 rpm/90 kts/1000FPM

VFR 
Downwind  -  90 Knots, 1st flaps, 1700 rpm
Base   - 80 Knots, 2nd Flaps, 500FPM Descend
Final  - 70 Knots, 30 deg  Flaps

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aoa_Vpf4xK4

Cessna 172SP Antennas

 

ANTENNAS - EACH ONE ON YOUR AIRCRAFT HAS A DIFFERENT FUNCTION

Antennas are probably the most overlooked part of an avionics system, yet they’re among the most important. Except for a few boxes (such as autopilots), avionics rely on antennas to talk with the outside world.

Modern antennas come in many different shapes and sizes. Each antenna is formed by its function. Often, a well-equipped airplane will have an antenna farm on the belly, and it can be confusing to try to figure out what each antenna does. But taken one by one, those antennas are easier to understand. The frequencies at which they operate and their directional qualities usually determine their shape and placement.

Communication radio antennas usually are mounted on the wings of high-wing airplanes. Photo by Chris Rose.

Communication antennas

Communication antennas are basic in operation. Each com transmitter has its own antenna, mostly for redundancy. They can be mounted on either the top or bottom of the aircraft, but each installation is susceptible to shadowing from the fuselage. Shadowing is caused by structure, such as the vertical stabilizer or landing gear doors, in the transmitting path of the antenna. Know where your antennas are and how shadowing may affect their range and coverage.

Mounted on the aircraf's belly, this transponder antenna also can transmit ADS-B Out signals. Photo by Chris Rose.

UHF antennas

UHF antennas are commonly used for transponders and distance measuring equipment (DME), and they are always found on the bottom of the aircraft. They are about four inches long, and the same antenna can be used for both systems because the transponder frequency is in the middle of the DME frequency band. Two types are commonly used: spike and blade antennas. The spike should only be used for transponders because the antenna length is tuned to one frequency—the transponder frequency. The blade antenna is also called a broadband antenna because it is tuned for a range of DME frequencies. A spike would not work very well for a DME; the blade antennas are preferred because the radiation pattern is better.

The spikes are prone to caking up with oil, reducing the transmitting range. Often, just cleaning a spike antenna doubles your transponder range and gets rid of those intermittent Mode C problems. This goes for all antennas; a dirty antenna does not perform up to its potential. Blade antennas are susceptible to delamination, which tends to detune the frequency response and distort the transmitted signal—that’s why the biennial transponder check is so important.

V-shaped "cat's whiskers" are one type of VHF navigation receiver antenna. All three common types are mounted on the vertical stabilizer. Photo by Chris Rose.

Nav antennas

The VHF nav antenna is almost always mounted on the vertical tail, and there are three types: the cat whisker, the dual blade, and the towel bar. The cat whisker consists of a couple of rods jutting out from each side of the vertical stabilizer at a 45-degree angle. But the cat whisker antenna is poor at receiving signals from the side. The dual blade is just that, two blades, one on each side of the tail. The towel bar resembles the common bathroom fixture, one on each side of the tail. The blade and towel bar antennas have equal receiving sensitivity from all directions.
A single nav antenna almost always feeds mulitple nav receivers and sometimes the glideslope as well. Therefore, a failure in the nav antenna system would cause multiple systems to malfunction.

Two GPS antennas are mounted on top of this fuselage; an antenna for each receiver provides redundancy. Photo by Chris Rose.

GPS antennas

GPS satellites transmit less than five watts of power, so by the time the signal reaches you, it is very, very weak. Because of this, the GPS antenna has a built-in amplifier to boost the signal for the receiver. Additionally, the GPS frequency is so high (in the gigahertz band) that the signals travel in a line-of-sight manner. This makes receiving the signal susceptible to airframe shadowing, thus mandating that a GPS antenna be mounted at the very top of the fuselage.

Communications radios can cause a lot of interference with GPS, because of the proximity of the panel units or their antennas. Therefore, it is important that the com and GPS antennas be mounted as far apart as possible. Sometimes a com antenna must be relocated to the bottom of the aircraft.

The belly-mounted marker beacon antenna receives signals from a VHF radio beacon that is part of certain instrument approaches. Photo by Chris Rose.

Marker beacon antennas

Marker beacon signals are highly directional, which means you have to be almost directly over the transmitting ground station to receive them; therefore, marker beacon antennas need to be on the bottom of the aircraft. There are a few different types of marker antennas; the more common types look like little canoes about 10 inches long. For some installations, Cessna has used flush antennas that appear to be flat plates under the empennage. It also has used an antenna that consists of a thick wire that protrudes straight down out of the empennage and then makes a turn toward the tail.

When needed, this antenna will transmit signals from the emergency locator transmitter or ELT. Photo by Chris Rose.

Emergency locator transmitter antennas

Hopefully, you’ll never have to use an emergency locator transmitter antenna, but in case you do, they are designed to survive an “unscheduled” landing. They are almost always on the upper skin of the empennage and are made of a flexible material. There are a few exceptions, though; some may be buried in the vertical tail or look like small com antennas.

Performance consideration

The physical condition of the antenna plays an important role in its performance. If the antenna is cracked, water may enter and cause delamination (a separation of the composite layers), which may render the antenna useless. And if the antenna base is not structurally strong, the antenna will vibrate from the slipstream and cause the skin to fatigue, eventually causing cracks.
The antenna must be electrically bonded (grounded) to the airframe so a good electrical connection is maintained. If some corrosion gets underneath the antenna, this bond may be compromised and the antenna’s efficiency may degrade. Sealant around the base of the antenna helps to prevent this. Antennas should never be painted over their original coatings; any paint buildup reduces the efficiency of an antenna.

Real estate is very scarce on an aircraft, and sometimes there is very little left for antennas. Every antenna location is a compromise between a solid mounting, shadowing, other antenna interference, ground planes, and aerodynamics.

This text has been adapted from a 2002 AOPA Pilot article written by Paul Novacek.

C-R-A-F-T: The Mnemonic for IFR Clearance

 

Navigating the skies under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) can be as demanding as it is rewarding, calling for a deep understanding of procedures, clear communication, and a sharp memory. Pilots are often equipped with various tools and techniques to ensure safety and efficiency, and one of the most effective among these is the use of mnemonics.

C-R-A-F-T: The Mnemonic for IFR Clearance

The CRAFT mnemonic stands for:
- Clearance limit: The endpoint of the clearance, which is usually the destination airport.
- Route: The specified path the flight is to follow, which might be altered by Air Traffic Control (ATC) from the initially filed route.
- Altitude: The initial altitude the aircraft is cleared to climb to, along with any expected further clearance for cruise altitude.
- Frequency: The departure frequency the pilots are to communicate on after leaving the airport.
- Transponder: The specific squawk code the aircraft is to use for identification by ATC radar. Additionally, the 'T' can also stand for time, especially concerning a void time, which is a deadline by which the aircraft must be airborne to maintain the clearance validity.

Example of IFR Clearance Using C-R-A-F-T

Let's break down an example:

- Clearance limit: Las Vegas Airport
- Route: HOLTZ seven departure, Daggett transition, then as filed.
- Altitude: Climb and maintain five thousand, with an expectation of flight level three three zero ten minutes after departure.
- Frequency: Departure frequency is 124.50 MHz.
- Transponder: Squawk 6562.

Why Mnemonics Matter
Mnemonics like CRAFT are not just memory aids; they're critical tools that help pilots manage the complex information flow required for safe flight operations under IFR. They ensure that no critical piece of information is overlooked during the critical phases of flight planning and execution.

Final Thoughts...
As we continue to share wisdom and insights into the art of flying, let's remember that good pilots are always learning. The use of mnemonics like CRAFT is just one of the many ways pilots can enhance their safety, efficiency, and confidence in the cockpit. Whether you're flying under the vast blue skies of the United States or navigating the diverse airspace of Europe, the principles of CRAFT ensure that you're equipped with the essential information for a successful flight.

Read Back Script- C-R-A-F-T

Cleared To ________________________
via _______________________________
Climb & Maintain_________________
Expect ___________________
In_____________ mins after Departure
Departure Frequency _______________
Squawk #_________________

 

Back by Popular Demand

visualisation of the traffic Pattern
over **+100,000 views WOW!
comments and shears on this post
Thank you! Fellow Aviators 
Follow & Like Us @iskysthelimit

Read All 15 post on -
“The Art of Perfect Landings” Here @ the Sky’s The Limit and I can promise, that it will help you put all the pieces of the puzzle together, helping you have:
•Faultless,
•Consistent,
•Perfect Landings time and time again...

**This is a Reference to help all levels of Qualified or Student Pilots, on how to better visualise the Traffic Pattern**
- It’s clear to see that without the Adequate...
•Knowledge,
•Training,
•Situational Awareness,
•Airmanship Skills,
•Qualities,

Gained through...
•Good Training
•Listening
•Understanding your CFIs (Certified Flight Instructor)
You will Fall Short of being a...
•Safer,
•Smarter,
• More Confident,
PILOT IN COMMAND!

So INVEST in You’re KNOWLEDGE of FLYING!

Sample Text from The Art of Perfect Landings:

The Key to Perfect, Consummate, Faultless, Flawless, Consistent Landings is:

**first Off for you to Gain Consistent & Faultless Landings you must be...

**Consistent & Flawless with the Whole Pattern / Approach basically the whole Set-up to Land needs to be on Perfect,makes sense right?

So Back 2 Basic Theory Knowledge there Are Four/ or /Five Legs to each Lading Pattern;

1.Upwind from follow Extended Centreline & Adjust for cross Winds Take Off - 500ft (Flaps Out) (LandingLight Off) (+ev Rate of Climb)(+ev Airspeed) (Vr/Vx/Vy) 300ft Below TPA Make Turn to Cross Wind-

2.Crosswind - Climbing Turn upto 950ft (Vy/Vx) Remember Speed is King

3.Downwind - 1000ft (Circuit Height) (Straight & Level) circuit Speed 80kt / Flap Stage 1 (Checklist). *BUMFLICHH*
*Downwind Speed VS-1.5*

4.Base - 700-500ft Glide Speed / Flaps Stage 2 Descent rate @ 500-600ft / Min Target to be at 500ft on Final.
*Base Speed VSO-1.4*

5.Final - 500ft- 0ft Full Flaps if Needed/ Flap less approach 1 Stage flaps in strong cross wind gusty condition.
*Final Speed VSO-1.3* GlideSlope- 


**Each Turn in the Pattern is @ 90° Turn Left or Right (No more then 30° of Bank) (if it's to the Left we -°Minus to the Right We +°Add ° to our Heading)

For Example:

**#RuleOfThumb L/R Hand Pattern Mind Set:
Left Hand (-°) / Right Hand (+°)

*Left Hand Pattern (-°)Runway#36- 360° X-Wind- 270° D-Wind- 180° Base- 090° Final- 360°

*Right Hand Pattern (+°) Runway#36- 360° X-Wind- 090° D-Wind- 180° Base- 270° Final- 360°

**Pre Landing Checklist Acronym:**
B-rakes - Press Toe-brakes - OFF
U-ndercarriage - Down "Fixed"
M-ixture - "Rich"
F-uel - "ON" & Sufficient for Go-Around
L-ights - "ON" Landing Lights
I-nstruments - Altimeter Set/ D.I / Engine T's & P's in the GREEN
C-arb Heat - Check for ICE & Set Cold
H-atches - Locked & Secured
H-arnesses - ON & Secured

YOUR Flight School & CFI are YOUR KEYS  to the SKY...

READ ALL 10 Posts on “THE ART OF PERFECT LANDINGS”

And I’m Confident it will HELP YOU... put all the pieces of the Puzzle Together!!

E-Book PDF downloads available Soon 
Here @ The Sky's The Limit
The Home of the Safer, Smarter, Confident Pilots.